# Romanian words in other languages: what the neighbours borrowed, according to their own dictionaries

Accounts of Romanian, the Romance language of Romania and Moldova, usually list what it borrowed: from Slavic, Turkish, Hungarian, French. This is the reverse count: 392 loans from Romanian, in 13 languages, each resting on a dictionary or a study of the language that received it. For another 162 words, the dictionaries hesitate or contradict each other.

The history of pastrami runs through Romanian. The American Heritage Dictionary gives the etymology as Yiddish pastrame, from Romanian pastramă, from Ottoman Turkish. Duden, the reference dictionary of German, traces German Pastrami from English through Yiddish to Romanian, and marks the earlier origin as unclear. The Turkish etymological dictionary describes the same chain from the other end: the Romanian form came from Turkish, the Yiddish form from Romanian.

That is how a borrowed word looks in the dictionaries of the languages that received it. For every word here the evidence is the same kind: the entry on its origin in a dictionary of the language that borrowed it (Polish, Ukrainian, Hungarian, Bulgarian) or, where no dictionary could be read, a study of that language. A word is counted as a loan from Romanian only if a dictionary of the language that uses it, or a study devoted to Romanian loans in that language, derives it from Romanian and no other source read proposes a different origin.

## The map: where Romanian words were borrowed

Each circle marks a language or dialect at the place given by the cited source. The number in it shows how many loans from Romanian are confirmed there, and the word beside it is an example, in that language's own letters. The shaded area is today's Romania and the Republic of Moldova.

At least 77 of the 392 loans are assigned by their sources to dialects of Transylvania, Moldavia, Bukovina and the Banat, or to the Yiddish of Romania: most are in the Yiddish of Romania, then in the Romani of Bukovina, a historical region in the north; in the Hungarian of Transylvania, the region in the west and centre of today's Romania, and of the Csángós, Hungarian speakers in Moldavia, in the east; in the dialect of the Transylvanian Saxons, German settlers there since the Middle Ages; and in the Bulgarian of the Banat, a region in the south-west. The true number may be higher, because the Hungarian dictionary does not say which region most of its dialect words come from.

The loans derive from 303 Romanian words. Of these, 249 turn up in one language only. Brânză, the Romanian word for cheese, is counted in seven languages, more than any other: in six directly, and in Russian through Ukrainian and Polish. Next is urdă, a whey cheese, counted in six languages. See Brânză → bryndza for the cheese word's history and the shepherds' route along the Carpathians.

## Romanian loans, language by language

The numbers below cannot be compared from one language to the next. Only the Hungarian etymological dictionary could be read in full. For the other languages the words looked up were those proposed by the specialist lists and by Wiktionary, and only two volumes of the Bulgarian etymological dictionary could be read as text. A larger number here shows that more words were checked. Of the 392 loans, 52 rest only on the list of a Romanian linguist, with no dictionary of the receiving language behind them.

Each tile is a word. Its colour says what kind of thing it names. Solid tiles are confirmed loans; hatched ones are words on which the dictionaries hesitate or disagree. Select a tile to see what each source says about the word.

### Hungarian

Source: the Új magyar etimológiai szótár (ÚESz), the etymological dictionary of Hungarian in progress online, read in full: 12,842 entries. In 102 of them the first explanation names Romanian as the language the word was taken from. Zaicz's dictionary is a second source for 15 words.

The oldest record the dictionary gives for a word on the list is katrinca (Romanian catrință, an apron skirt), in a glossary of about 1405, where it means a kerchief; the apron-skirt sense is recorded from 1612. The standard language has 12 of them, among them áfonya (bilberry, from afină), cimbora (pal, from sâmbră, a partnership in field work), furulya (flute, from fluier), tokány (a stew, from tocană), poronty (brat, from prunc, infant) and palacsinta (pancake, from plăcintă). The dictionary marks 73 as regional and five as obsolete. For seven of the words counted it adds that they also came, certainly or probably, through Slovak, Serbian and Croatian (“Serbo-Croatian” in the dictionary) or Ukrainian. For brindza, by contrast, the dictionary's first verdict is Vándorszó, a wandering word, spread from Romanian; as it is not entered as a Romanian loanword, it is listed here as disputed.

counted: 90 · disputed: 56 · candidates not counted: 50

Of those counted, in the standard language: 12; dialect words: 73; obsolete or dated: 5. By kind of thing: the sheepfold 17, house and clothes 14, words for ideas 12, food 11, people 11, nature 10, music and custom 9, field and cattle 6.

**Confirmed from Romanian** (90): áfonya (bilberry, blueberry (shrub and berry); < afină), bács (head shepherd responsible for a flock; < baci), bálmos (dish of sheep's cheese boiled with cornmeal; < balmoș), berbécs (ram, wether; also pile-driver ram; < berbec), bulándra (rag; (vulgar) loose woman; < buleandră), burdó (bagpipe; leather bag for curd; < burduf), buszujog (basil; < busuioc), cáp (billy goat; castrated male animal; < țap), cigája (Tsigai sheep (breed); its wool; < țigaie), cimbora (mate, pal; originally partner in joint field work; < sâmbră), csercse (earring; dewlap, wattle; < cercel), csimpolya (bagpipe; < cimpoi), csoma (plague, epidemic; curse word; < ciumă), csula (crop-eared, lop-eared (of sheep, cattle); < ciul), dajnál (to bawl, sing a (Romanian folk) song; < doină), dancs (unclean, dirty; Roma child; < danci), döblöc (pumpkin, baking pumpkin; (adj.) stocky; < dovleac), domika (bread soup with cheese or curd; < dumicat), ester (sterile, barren; < știr), esztena (sheepfold; shepherd's hut, summer sheep station; < stână), esztrenga (sheep pen, milking enclosure; < strungă), ficsúr (fop, dandy; originally Romanian lad; small wooden measure; < fecior), furulya (flute, shepherd's pipe; < fluier), fustély (knobbed stick, cudgel; < fuște), fuszuly (bean; < fasole), fuzsitos (half-witted, eccentric; quarrelsome; < fugit), gergelice (grain weevil; bedbug; < gărgăriță), gornyik (forest warden, village servant, field watchman; < gornic), gulászta (beestings (first milk); < coraslă), gusa (goitre; bird's crop; < gușă), haricska (buckwheat; < hrișcă), iszkumpia (smoke tree (Cotinus coggygria); < scumpie), kalácsol (to indicate, give away, lead to the trace; < colac), kaláka (voluntary communal work; corvée; < clacă), kápra (she-goat; < capră), karuca (small unshod cart; < căruță), kaskavál (a kind of hard sheep cheese; < cașcaval), katrinca (kerchief (c. 1405); apron skirt of peasant women (from 1612); < catrință), kilinta (cheese-press dish; meat-beating board; < crintă), kirlán (young castrated sheep; < cârlan), kocsorba (coal rake, poker; < cociorvă), kokojsza (bilberry; cowberry; < coacăză), kolindál (to go carol-singing from house to house; to roam; < colinda), kompona (balance scales; well sweep; measure of cheese; < cumpănă), korosnya (bundle of brushwood carried on the back; < croșnă), kotec (pen, coop; hut; < coteț), kozsók (sheepskin jacket; < cojoc), kozsokár (furrier; < cojocar), kurkálódik (to get tangled, entangled; < încurca), lák (lake, pond, marsh; < lac), lestyán (lovage (Levisticum); < leuștean), lunguj (long log laid along a ramp (Transylvanian Hungarian); < lung), lunka (meadow or field by a stream; wood, thicket; valley; < luncă), macsuka (cudgel, knob of a club; < măciucă), málé (millet; maize; maize cake; < mălai), mamaliga (polenta, maize porridge; < mămăligă), matásza (silk thread; < mătase), mátka (anyaméh) (womb; queen bee; < matcă), mióra (ewe lamb, young ewe; < mioară), mokány (tough, rough (person); Wallachian Romanian; highlander; < mocan), mutuj (mute; clumsy; feeble-minded (Transylvanian Hungarian); < mut), nótin (young sheep, mostly female; < noaten), orda (sweet curd of sheep's whey; < urdă), oszkotár (shepherd; < scutar), pakulár (shepherd; < păcurar), pakura (cart grease; petroleum, crude oil, fuel oil; < păcură), palacsinta (pancake, crêpe (earlier: flat cake); < plăcintă), panusa (maize stalk; corn husk; < pănușă), pláj (mountain; mountain path; alpine meadow; < plai), pojána (forest or alpine clearing; < poiană), pomána (gift; funeral meal; alms; < pomană), pópa (Orthodox priest; < popă), poronty (small child, brat; young of certain animals; < prunc), prikulics (ghost; werewolf; < pricolici), puca (child's genitals (vulgar); potato dumpling; < puță), purzsa (short-woolled (sheep); Romanian sheep breed; < pârj), putina (small wooden tub; < putină), rezsnyice (hand mill, grinder; < râșniță), szemunca (offspring, progeny; < sămânță), szilimány (unfortunate, helpless; thin, frail; < sărman), szlanina (bacon, cured pork fat; < slănină), szokotál (to count, reckon; consider; < socoti), tácsol (to silence, to shout down; < tăcea), tilinkó (simple flute, shepherd's pipe; < tilincă), tóka (wooden or metal signal board; signal bell; < toacă), tokány (tokány, stew of meat strips; polenta; < tocană), turma (flock of sheep; < turmă), ulica (narrow street; < uliță), virse (fish trap, weir basket; < vârșă), zsitár (field guard, forest warden; < jitar)

**Names of Romanian things** (8): ármás (armed man; officer of the Romanian voivode's court; bailiff; < armaș), beszerika (Orthodox church of the Romanians; brightly painted house; < biserică), cujka (a kind of (Romanian) plum brandy; < țuică), dászkál (Romanian village teacher and cantor; < dascăl), fáta ((Romanian) girl; < fată), hóra (hora, Romanian ring dance; < horă), tretina (a tax paid in animals by Romanian serfs; tithe ransom; < tretină), vecsin (Romanian freedman (historical); < vecin)

**Disputed** (56): alak (spelt, einkorn (alakor); < alac), árkány (lasso, halter; < arcan), belice (white sheep; < beliță), bojár (boyar (Romanian nobleman); also Russian-type boyar; < boier), bosztán (vegetable garden, melon field; pumpkin; < bostan), bráha (bad brandy; mash; < bragă), brindza ((soft) sheep's cheese; < brânză), buruján (weed, thicket; < buruiană), cserge (coarse woollen blanket; tent; < cergă), csobán (shepherd; sheepdog; < cioban), csuporka (mushroom (champignon); < ciupercă), csutora (flask; drinking vessel; pipe stem; < ciutură), deget (cart grease; tar; < dohot), dránica (shingle; < draniță), galeta (pail, milking bucket; < găleată), garád (fence, railing; water channel; < gard), hiribi (boletus, cep; < hrib), hodály (sheepfold; large stable; < hodaie), huruba (hovel, hut; < hrubă), ját (companion, age-mate; < leat), kacor (curved knife; sickle), kaliba (hut, hovel; < colibă), kalugyer (Orthodox monk; < călugăr), kantár (steelyard; weight measure; < cântar), kapkána (trap, snare; < capcană), kátrány (tar; < catran), kilim (kilim rug; < chilim), kocsány (stalk; corn cob; < cocean), krajnik (an official: bailiff, estate manager; < crainic), kujak (fist), kukk (a ball game; (kukkra) high up; < cuc), kukorica (maize; < cucuruz), kusztora (clasp knife; surgeon's knife; < custură), malágy (marshy thicket; a kind of willow; < mladă), marázsa (fishing net; fish trap; < mreajă), more (Roma man; Romanian lad (as a form of address); < măre), muszuj (a fabric; pleated skirt; < musul), oka (old weight measure; < oca), östör (goosefoot, fat hen; < știr), padlizsán (aubergine; < pătlăgea), perpence (millstone spindle (rynd); < pârpăriță), peszterce (mushrooms (various)), pite (pie, pastry), pohárnok (cup-bearer (court office); < paharnic), pulya (small; small child; coward; < pui), purga (groats, porridge; maize cob; < pârgă), rönköly (stocky person; log; < trunchi), salavári (wide trousers; < șalvari), suta (hornless, crop-horned; clumsy; doe (female roe deer); < ciut), szárma (stuffed cabbage; < sarma), szécs (forest clearing; < seci), szekszena (pack saddle; junk; brandy; < sacsana), szokmány (frieze coat; < sucman), topor (small hand axe; < topor), vátra (hearth; charcoal-burners' site; < vatră), zsendice (sweet whey; < jintiță)

### Ukrainian

Source: the Etymological Dictionary of the Ukrainian Language (ЕСУМ, 1982–2012), in which 167 words were looked up. Of the 120 taken directly, the dictionary derives 49 from “the Romanian language”, 16 from “the Moldavian language”, 29 from both and 26 from the “East Romance languages”; here they are counted together, as loans from Romanian: this page takes the dictionary's “Moldavian” to be the Romanian spoken in Moldova. In 16 of them the verdict begins with “очевидно” (apparently). Emil Vrabie's list of 1967 is a second source for 85 of them.

Nearly all are dialect words, from the Carpathians, Bukovina and Transcarpathia: жентиця (whey, Romanian jintiță), кирд (flock, cârd), стина (sheepfold, stână), ґляґ (rennet, cheag). The standard language took 11, among them бринза, мамалиґа, плачинда and the verb плекати (to cherish, to rear), which the dictionary says was apparently borrowed “as a Carpathian shepherds' term”.

counted: 121 · disputed: 18 · candidates not counted: 28

Of those counted, in the standard language: 11; dialect words: 98; obsolete or dated: 1; no register given by the source: 11. By kind of thing: the sheepfold 27, house and clothes 22, nature 20, words for ideas 15, food 14, people 9, field and cattle 7, music and custom 4, market and law 3.

**Confirmed from Romanian** (120): афина (bilberries; < afină), бабана (old ewe (past breeding); < babană), бадя (sister's husband; (child speech) elder brother; form of address to an older man; < bade), балан (white ox; white horse or dog; fair-haired lad; < bălan), балець (bridal veil or kerchief; wedding loaf; < balț), балеґа (cattle dung; < baligă), балмуш (Carpathian dish of maize flour with sheep cheese or eggs; < balmoș), барза (black sheep with a white breast; black goat; < bârză), баталев (churn; milk vessel; < bătălău), блинда (severe skin rash, hives; < blândă), бовгар (cowherd, herdsman of large cattle; < boar), больфа (sore, blister, swelling; < bolfă), ботей (flock of sheep; young Hutsul shepherd; < botei), брацар (silver bracelet; shirt cuff; < brățară), бринза (sheep's-milk cheese; < brânză), броскай ((male) frog; < broscoi), брустура (burdock (Arctium); < brusture), будз (fresh or dried sheep cheese; soured milk for brynza; < bulț), букат (piece, slice; < bucată), букулай (name for a ram; < bucălaie), буна (grandmother; < bună), бурдей (dugout, smoky hut; tent of Roma; < bordei), бусуйок (basil; < busuioc), бутук (tree trunk for sawing; gnarled block for chopping wood; < butuc), бір (tax; < bir), вурда (pressed hemp or poppy seed as pie filling; whey cheese; < urdă), гавра (lair of a wild animal; maw; < gaură), гард (fish weir, barrier across a river; < gard), гелета (wooden vessel, barrel; milk pail; old measure of milk or grain; < găleată), гирло (river mouth; river arm; < gârlă), грапа (harrow; < grapă), гривий (grey-yellow, dappled grey (colour of a horse); < griv), гринда (small shelf; plough beam; barrier; < grindă), гропа (mountain pasture (polonyna); < groapă), грун (hillock, knoll; < grui), дармой (sieve with large holes; < dârmoi), дзер (whey; < zer), дзяма (broth, meat stock; fruit juice; < zeamă), дзіґерай (head cold, catarrh; < jigărai), жентиця (whey from sheep's milk; < jintiță), калаверці (boots with turned-down tops; < calavră), каманак (Hutsul cap, beret; < comănac), капестра (halter, bridle; < căpăstru), каруца (cart, wagon; < căruță), каця (hooked stick for catching sheep; < cață), кептар (sleeveless fur jerkin; < cheptar), кирд (flock of sheep; < cârd), клака (communal work by neighbours or kin, volunteer labour; < clacă), комарник (shepherd's shelter; partitioned dairy store; < comarnic), кондури (kind of boots (Pokuttia); < condur), коркобець (rainbow; < curcubeu), корнута (horned sheep; < cornută), костура (slaughtering knife; < custură), кукуц (small loaf given to children at New Year; pastry; < cocuț), кумнат (brother-in-law; < cumnat), куркан (turkey cock; < curcan), курмей (rope; < curmei), лавути (lute; stringed instrument; fiddle; < lăută), латура (dog food; thin soup or porridge; < lături), левурда (ramsons, bear's garlic (Allium ursinum); < leurdă), леліка (aunt (also address to an older woman); < lelică), лок (place; plot of land; < loc), магала (outlying quarter; part of a village; < mahala), магура (high mountain, hill; < măgură), май (particle that forms the comparative; < mai), малай (bread of maize, peas or millet; white clay disc; millet; < mălai), мамалиґа (thick maize porridge; < mămăligă), марфа (goods for barter; factory-made cloth; tree floated by Hutsuls; < marfă), мензеря (milch ewe; < mânzare), мерендати (to ruminate, chew the cud; < meriza), мериндя (bag of food; provisions for the road; udder; < merinde), мицька (wool of young lambs; turf; < miță), непіт (nephew; grandson; < nepot), одая (cattle enclosure outside the village; farmstead; forest clearing; < odaie), партал (remains of a sheep eaten by wolves; < partal), пафталі (women's dress item (buckles); < paftale), пацити (to mock, rage; to suffer hardships; < păți), плай (mountain path; riding road; level field; < plai), плачинда (kind of pie; < plăcintă), плекати (to cherish, nurture, foster; < pleca), позна (harm, damage; < poznă), помана (memorial loaf; memorial gift; < pomană), порняла (pasture for milch sheep; grazing after the evening milking; < porneală), путера (wooden vessel for making sheep cheese; < putină), путеря (strength, power; < putere), риндзя (calf's stomach; milk starter; < rânză), рипа (pothole; steep bank, cliff; < râpă), румегати (to chew the cud; < rumega), салба (part of women's costume (necklace of coins); < salbă), сапа (hoe; < sapă), сарака (poor wretch; < sărac), сегельба (plot cleared by felling and burning for a field; < seghelbă), сембреля (wages of farmhands; reward for shepherds; < simbrie), сокотити (to keep, guard, preserve; < socoti), стина (summer sheepfold in the field; < stână), турма (flock, herd, crowd; < turmă), тяр (indeed, really; < chiar), флояра (shepherd's flute; < fluier), фота (striped woollen cloth worn by Galician women as a skirt; < fotă), фрембія (cord on an apron; < frâmbie), фрика (violence, coercion; < frică), фудулія (arrogance, haughtiness; < fudulie), фурка (three-pronged pitchfork; < furcă), фін (godchild; bridegroom in relation to his wedding sponsors; < fin), цара (crowd; foreign land; < țară), царина (village gate; field; pasture; < țarină), царок (pen for poultry or calves; < țarc), ґалиця (poultry; < găliță), ґелка (swelling, lump; < gâlcă), ґердан (bead necklace or headband; < gherdan), ґерґелиця (grain weevil (Calandra granaria); < gărgăriță), ґирлиґа (long staff with a hooked end; < cârlig), ґляґ (part of a ruminant's stomach used to curdle milk; < chiag), ґорґан (mountain peak, ridge; < gorgan), ґоґа (black adder; < gogă), ґоґоман (fool; < gogoman), ґринджоли (simple low sledges; < gringioară), ґрос (flock of pregnant ewes; < gros), ґурґуля (lump, swelling; < gurgui), ґутурай (head cold, catarrh; < guturai)

**Came through another language** (1): байор (braid, cord, ribbon (krajka); < baier)

**Disputed** (18): бербениця (small tub for dairy products, barrel; < bărbânță), бокор (raft; < bocor), ватра (fire, hearth; Hutsul dwelling; < vatră), гайда (flute; bagpipe; < gaidă), кемпа (island in a river; < câmp), кода (belt, ribbon; < coadă), колиба (shepherd's hut; Hutsul loggers' winter log dwelling; < colibă), кошара (sheep pen; < coșar), кукурудза (maize; < cucuruz), мерлушка (fur of a dead sheep), окіл (enclosure where sheep stand before milking; < ocol), папуша (bundle of tobacco leaves; pack; < păpușă), сака (water barrel), тайстра (bag, satchel; < traistă), трембіта (Hutsul long wooden horn; < trâmbiță), фума (pride, haughtiness; < fum), філіжанка (cup; < filigean), цап (he-goat; < țap)

### Polish

Sources: the great dictionary of the Polish Academy, the PWN dictionary and Brückner's etymological dictionary of 1927; for the dialect of the Spiš region, a 2025 study; for Turkish words that reached older Polish through Romanian, a 2024 study.

In the standard language: bryndza, cap (billy goat, Romanian țap), fujara (flute, fluier), maczuga (club, măciucă), gawra (a bear's den, from gaură, hole), redyk (the drive of the sheep up and down the mountain, from a ridica, to lift). Mamałyga came through Ukrainian. The origin of the best-known word, baca, the head shepherd, is disputed; the details are below.

counted: 20 · disputed: 24 · candidates not counted: 15

Of those counted, in the standard language: 14; dialect words: 5; obsolete or dated: 1. By kind of thing: the sheepfold 8, food 4, field and cattle 2, house and clothes 2, words for ideas 2, music and custom 1, nature 1.

**Confirmed from Romanian** (18): bryndza (sheep's-milk cheese (Podhale, Carpathians); < brânză), bukat (young beef animal, calf for slaughter; its hide; < bucată), cap (billy goat (esp. castrated); male chamois; < țap), cygaj (sheep breed resembling the merino (tsigai); < țigaie), cygarka (lamb (17th c.); < cigoje), ferula (paddle used by the baca to stir and break the curd in the cheese kettle; < ferula), fujara (long shepherd's flute; (colloquial) clumsy person; < fluier), furda (trifle, thing of no account (dated); < furda), gawra (bear's winter den; < gaură), hurda (urda) (fatty layer of whey curd on żętyca; whey cheese; < urdă), kierdel (flock of sheep on mountain pasture; herd of chamois; < cârd), klag / klog (rennet of dried lamb or calf stomachs for cheese-making; < chiag), maczuga (club, cudgel; < măciucă), papusza (bundle of dried tobacco leaves (dated); < păpușă), puciyra (puciera) (large wooden milk tub for sheep's milk; < putină), redyk (spring drive of sheep to mountain pasture; autumn return; < ridica), strąga (sheep-pen, milking enclosure; < strungă), żętyca (whey of sheep's milk; < jintiță)

**Came through another language** (2): haratać (to slash, gash; to hit and wound; < hărtăni), mamałyga (maize porridge; < mămăligă)

**Names of Romanian things** (3): achtnamele (peace treaty between the Porte and a Christian country (17th c.); < ahtiname), katerdziej (Wallachian ban (title, 1670); < cataragi), kałarasz (mounted courier, servant of a Wallachian/Moldavian prince (17th c.); < călăraș)

**From Aromanian (a Balkan Romance language), or attributed by the source only to “Vlachs”** (1): watra (bonfire (Carpathians, Podhale, Lemko, scouts))

**Disputed** (24): baca (head shepherd in the Polish Carpathians; < baci), bombaradzi (cannon founder (1787); < cumbaragiu), bundz (fresh sheep-cheese mass, before it becomes bryndza), chusta (large scarf, shawl; < fustă), dział (sense "mountain ridge") (mountain ridge (dialect sense); < deal), feredza (wide-sleeved Ottoman cloak (1760); < feregea), filiżanka (cup (tea, coffee); < filigean), fota (cotton wrap / apron (16th-19th c.); < fotă), gajda (gajdy) (bagpipes; < gaidă), gieleta (galeta) (wooden milking pail (Podhale, Spiš); < găleată), groń (gruń) (broad gentle mountain ridge; hill; < gruniu), hatihumajum (sultan's handwritten decree (19th c.); < hatihumaium), haładżija (coarse striped silk fabric (19th c.); < alagea), hospodar (title of the princes of Moldavia and Wallachia (historical)), jałagasy (Tatar military commander (1666); < ial agasi), koczkodan (guenon (monkey); ugly, oddly dressed person; < coșcodan), koliba (koleba) (mountain shepherd's hut; rock shelter; < colibă), koszara (koszar, dial. kosor) (portable sheep fold on mountain pasture; < coșară), kukurydza (maize; < cucuruz), kurta (large loose jacket; < scurtă), samar (pack-saddle, packs (17th c.); < samar), serdengest (volunteer, forlorn-hope soldier (1678); < serdenghești), trombita (trembita) (long Hutsul alpine horn; < trompetă), zahara (provisions, food supplies (c. 1690); < zaharea)

### Slovak

Source: Ľubor Králik's etymological dictionary (2015), which also gives the century of the first record. The historical dictionary of Slovak could not be consulted.

Králik writes that bryndza reached Slovakia “during the so-called Wallachian colonisation of the Carpathians”. He also derives from Romanian žinčica (with possible Ukrainian mediation, he adds), geleta, strunga, putera, redikať sa. Through Hungarian came palacinka, fičúr and čutora. On bača and vatra the same dictionary hedges; at fujara it only compares Romanian fluier, without naming the language the word was taken from.

counted: 16 · disputed: 9 · candidates not counted: 10

Of those counted, in the standard language: 13; dialect words: 1; obsolete or dated: 2. By kind of thing: food 5, the sheepfold 5, nature 2, people 2, field and cattle 1, house and clothes 1.

**Confirmed from Romanian** (13): bryndza (soft sheep's-milk cheese; < brânză), cigája (sheep breed with fine wool (tsigai); < țigaie), demikát (soup of sheep cheese and cut bread; < dumicat), geleta (wooden milk vessel; < găleată), grapa (barren stony field, usually on a slope; < groapă), grúň (unwooded mountain slope; < grui), meridzať (to ruminate (of livestock); rest in the shade; < meriza), merinda (provisions for a journey; < merinde), plekať (to suckle a child (obsolete); < pleca), putera (vessel for milk and cheese used at the sheepfold; < putină), redikať sa (to move the flock down from the summer pasture; to trudge; < ridica), strunga (fenced milking pen in a sheepfold; < strungă), žinčica (boiled whey of sheep's milk; < jintiță)

**Came through another language** (3): čutora (flat flask; pipe stem; < ciutură), fičúr (dandy; showily dressed man (pejorative); < fecior), palacinka (pancake; < plăcintă)

**From Aromanian (a Balkan Romance language), or attributed by the source only to “Vlachs”** (1): kľag (calf stomach used as rennet; < chiag)

**Disputed** (9): bača (head shepherd, master of a sheepfold; < baci), cap (billy goat; < țap), cárok (pen for livestock and poultry; < țarc), fujara (long folk shepherd flute; < fluier), magura (hill, mountain, hilly land (dialect); < măgură), sihlina (waterlogged ground; young conifer stand; < sihlă), striga (witch, hag; < strigă), vari (perhaps, maybe (particle); < oare), vatra (large open-air fire; < vatră)

### Czech

Sources: the dictionary of standard Czech (SSJČ), which marks the origin as “z rum.”, Rejzek's etymological dictionary and an article of 1974 on the words of Romanian origin in SSJČ.

The two Czech dictionaries often contradict each other, which is why the list of disputed words is longer than the list of confirmed ones. Brynza, žinčice and urda are derived from Romanian; bača, koliba and fujara each have two explanations.

counted: 9 · disputed: 15 · candidates not counted: 5

Of those counted, in the standard language: 4; dialect words: 5; obsolete or dated: 0. By kind of thing: food 3, the sheepfold 3, house and clothes 2, nature 1.

**Confirmed from Romanian** (6): brynza (soft sheep's-milk cheese; < brânză), cap (billy goat (dialect); < țap), pakura (fuel oil, mazut (technical, rare); < păcură), redikat se (to move away (dialect); < ridica), urda (whey curd (sheep); < urdă), žinčice (boiled whey of sheep's milk; < jintiță)

**Came through another language** (3): čutora (flat round flask for travel; < ciutură), grapa (steep slope, ravine (dialect); < groapă), strunga (pen where ewes are gathered before milking; < strungă)

**Names of Romanian things** (1): trembita (long Hutsul alpine horn; < trâmbiță)

**Disputed** (15): bača (head shepherd (Slovakia, Wallachia); < baci), četina (conifer needle, branches (dialect); < cetină), fujara (shepherd flute; < fluier), geleta (wooden dish for sheep milk (dialect); < găleată), grúň (mountain slope, usually grassy (dialect); < grui), hafera (bilberry (dialect); < aferă), kočkodan (guenon (African monkey); < coșcodan), koliba (wooden shepherd hut; < colibă), košár (portable pen for livestock (dialect); < coșar), krdel (flock, crowd (dialect, Slovak); < cârd), palačinka (pancake; < plăcintă), portáš (member of the Wallachian armed border guard (17th-18th c.)), prť (sheep path, mountain path (dialect, Slovak); < pârtie), sihla (young conifer forest; swamp (dialect); < sihlă), vatra (large open-air fire; < vatră)

### German

Sources: Duden and DWDS; for the dialect of the Transylvanian Saxons, a 2022 study.

Austrian German has Brimsen (sheep's-milk cheese) and Palatschinke (pancake). Among the Saxons, pomană (alms and the meal for the dead) and a pomeni (to mention, to commemorate) entered the dialect; the noun is on record from the second half of the 18th century. The sources read give no total for the Saxon dialect.

counted: 5 · disputed: 1 · candidates not counted: 2



**Confirmed from Romanian** (3): Brimsen (soft fresh sheep's-milk cheese (Liptauer ingredient); < brânză), Pomānǝ (alms and meal for the dead (pomană); < pomană), pomenin (to remember, mention, come to oneself (a pomeni); < pomeni)

**Came through another language** (2): Palatschinke (thin rolled pancake, often filled with jam; < plăcintă), Pastrami (spiced, cured and smoked beef; < pastramă)

**Names of Romanian things** (1): Doina (Romanian folk song (doină); < doină)

**Disputed** (1): Ramasuri (great confusion, commotion; < ramasuri)

### Russian

Source: Max Vasmer's etymological dictionary.

Today's dictionaries of standard Russian have мамалыга and брынза; of the second, Vasmer says it came from Romanian through Ukrainian and Polish. Vasmer marks мамалыга and the others as southern.

counted: 5 · disputed: 6 · candidates not counted: 5



**Confirmed from Romanian** (4): герлыга (shepherd's crook with hooked end; < cârlig), мамалыга (thick maize porridge; < mămăligă), урда (goat or sheep whey cheese; < urdă), царина (ploughland, pasture, pen; < țarină)

**Came through another language** (1): брынза (sheep's-milk cheese; < brânză)

**Disputed** (6): гирло (river mouth; channel; < gârlă), кошара (sheep pen; < cășare), кукуруза (maize; < cucuruz), мерлуха (lambskin; < mielușă), плацинда (flat or layered sweet pie; < plăcintă), цап (he-goat; < țap)

### Bulgarian

Sources: volumes 1 (letters А–З) and 7 of the eight-volume Bulgarian Etymological Dictionary (БЕР), the only two available as text, and a 1923 study by the Romanian linguist Theodor Capidan. For that reason the list is fuller at the start of the alphabet.

Most are dialect words; the dictionary records them at Novo Selo, near Vidin on the Danube: зър (whey, Romanian zer), зара (buttermilk, zară), згарда (a dog's collar, zgardă). Маса (table, masă) and козунак (Easter bread, cozonac), standard words today, are derived from Romanian by Capidan, who in 1923 knew the second mostly from the Tărnovo region. The words Capidan derives from Aromanian are kept apart.

counted: 30 · disputed: 8 · candidates not counted: 0

Of those counted, in the standard language: 5; dialect words: 25; obsolete or dated: 0. By kind of thing: house and clothes 11, food 7, people 4, the sheepfold 2, words for ideas 2, nature 2, market and law 1, music and custom 1. Seven of them rest only on the list of a Romanian linguist (Capidan 1923), with no dictionary of the receiving language behind them.

**Confirmed from Romanian** (30): fičor (herdsman's apprentice; a children's game; < fecior), krecavo (curly; < creț), urda (whey cheese; < urdă), абонат (subscriber; < abonat), бордей (dugout, earth-house; < bordei), ботуш (long boot; < botuș), бръндза (sheep's-milk cheese; < brânză), бурта (stomach, belly; < burtă), бухта (small fried dough pastry; < bucată), бухтар (cook of a market-gardeners' gang; < bucătar), бъзой (drone pipe of a bagpipe; < bizoi), бъц (pole with a pointed end, used to lift the hot roasting plate; < băț), вунтур (a large eagle; < vultur), гринда (large hewn beam; < grindă), гропа (pit, hole (lime pit; slaughterhouse pit); < groapă), гуша (crop, throat, double chin; < gușă), дрептар (mason's straightedge; < dreptar), дричка (mason's float (small board for smoothing plaster); < drișcă), дунга (pressed crease of a garment; < dungă), завракчия (sly, mischievous person; < zavragiu), зара (buttermilk; < zară), згарда (spiked collar of a sheepdog; < zgardă), зър (whey; < zer), козунак (sweet Easter bread; < cozonac), маса (table; < masă), смирдар (alpine rose, Rhododendron myrtifolium; < smârdar), сокрул (father-in-law (obsolete); < socru), софраджерия (dining room; < sofragerie), струнк (lathe; < strung), турта (unleavened bread, flat loaf; < turtă)

**Names of Romanian things** (1): мамалига (cornmeal porridge; < mămăligă)

**From Aromanian (a Balkan Romance language), or attributed by the source only to “Vlachs”** (7): guna (sheepskin coat; < gună), kalčuni (felt slippers; < călțuni), kъrlig (shepherd's crook; < cârlig), mucka (pig's snout; < muță), mura (stomach lining; rennet; < mură), вакъл (black-eyed (of sheep)), катинар (padlock; < cătinar)

**Disputed** (8): mandzara (she-goat kept at home for milk (Rhodope); < mândzare), банка (bank (financial institution); < bancă), бът (iron axle of a mill wheel; tongue of a balance; < băț), ватах (head of a Whitsun (kalushari) dance band; master of a foundry (Samokov); < vătaf), зестра (dowry; < zestre), пуйка (turkey hen; < puică), табла (backgammon board and game; < tablă), чутура (wine flask; grain measure; pestle trough; < ciutură)

### Serbian and Croatian

Sources: Petar Skok's etymological dictionary and the Hrvatski jezični portal.

Where Skok writes “od rum.” the word is counted; six of the nine rest on Skok alone. Fičor, which he elsewhere assigns to the language of the “medieval Vlachs”, is listed under “Vlach”. Frula (flute) and kustura (clasp knife) are derived from Romanian by the Croatian portal as well. Three words come from craftsmen's secret languages: that of the masons of Sirinić, in the Šar Mountains, that of the potters of Priština and an argot of the same town.

counted: 9 · disputed: 11 · candidates not counted: 4

Of those counted, in the standard language: 1; dialect words: 7; obsolete or dated: 1. By kind of thing: house and clothes 3, music and custom 2, food 2, people 1, the sheepfold 1.

**Confirmed from Romanian** (9): biserka (church (in a masons' argot); < biserică), bojar (nobleman, boyar (17th-18th c. dictionaries and poets); < boier), frula (shepherd's flute; < fluier), karne (meat (in a potters' argot, Priština); < carne), kasarina (house (in an argot of Priština); < casă), kustura (large clasp knife with a bone handle; < custură), mamaljuga (cornmeal porridge; < mămăligă), obnjalo (foot-wrap (Timok-Lužnik dialect); < obială), rinjkaš (badly castrated horse or ox; < rincaciu)

**From Aromanian (a Balkan Romance language), or attributed by the source only to “Vlachs”** (1): fičor (young man (Šar planina); < fecior)

**Disputed** (11): bač (head of a sheepfold; sheepfold; < baciu), burdelj (hut, dugout; < bordei), gagrica (grain weevil (also an insult for a miser); < gărgăriță), guša (throat, crop, double chin; < gușă), katun (nomadic shepherds' summer settlement; < cătun), koftor (tin oven (Kosovo); < cuptor), kopile (illegitimate child; < copil), laja (name for a black ewe or goat; < laiu), rakanjel (green tree frog (Zaječar); < răcănel), struga (small pen where ewes are milked; < strungă), urda (whey cheese; < urdă)

### Romani

Sources: Franz Miklosich's glossary of the Romani of Bukovina (1875), where each loan is tagged “rum.”; for the Vlax dialects, studies by Yaron Matras, Viktor Elšík and Daniele Viktor Leggio; and one sentence of Lazăr Șăineanu (1892), who lists seven Romanian words as having entered the speech of the Roma, without giving their Romani forms.

Matras writes that Gilliat-Smith adopted the term “Vlax”, used by immigrant Roma “originating from Wallachia”, the southern Romanian principality. In these dialects the linguists cited find grammar words borrowed from Romanian: maj (more, Romanian mai), ke (that, că), trebui (must), inke (still, încă). Elšík and Matras write that the loan trebui is found in most Vlax dialects spoken outside Romania too, some of which lost contact with Romanian centuries ago. The sources read give no number for all Vlax dialects together. For one of them, the Kalderash dialect of Romani as spoken in Sweden, Ian Hancock cites a glossary of 1963: of 3,600 words, some 1,750 are not inherited, “overwhelmingly from Romanian”. Matras and his colleagues recall that until the middle of the 19th century Roma were subjected to slavery and serfdom in Wallachia and Moldavia.

counted: 39 · disputed: 2 · candidates not counted: 0

Of those counted, in the standard language: 0; dialect words: 39; obsolete or dated: 0. By kind of thing: words for ideas 17, people 8, nature 5, house and clothes 5, market and law 2, music and custom 2. Seven of them rest only on the list of a Romanian linguist (Șăineanu 1892), with no dictionary of the receiving language behind them.

**Confirmed from Romanian** (39): aba (already (adverb)), avére (wealth; < avere), báďu (form of address for an older man; < bade), balaúru (dragon; < balaur), bálta (swamp, pond; < baltă), bihol (buffalo; < bivol), bulibașă (headman of a Roma group), burdúhu (sack; < burduhan), buzdugánu (cudgel; < buzdugan), červ (stag; < cerb), čitisar (to read; < citi), dáskalu (church cantor, teacher; < dascăl), de (since (preposition); < de), destúl (enough; < destul), dóba (drum; < dobă), dóftoru (doctor; < doftor), dómnu (lord, gentleman; < domn), dóru (longing, yearning; < dor), drag (love, dear; < drag), drágoste (love affair; < dragoste), dumbráva (wood, forest; < dumbravă), fágu (beech; < fag), feri (only (adverb)), giude (judge, head of the community), hórba (word; < vorbă), inke (still (adverb); < încă), ke (that, because (complementiser); < că), laie (band of nomadic Roma), lúme (world; < lume), maj (more (comparative marker); < mai), mereu (always; < mereu), milija (thousand), sălaș (lodging, encampment), trájsta (bag, haversack; < traistă), trebui (to be necessary, must (impersonal modal); < trebui), vare- (some- (indefinite marker, e.g. vare-kon)), vatră (hearth, camp), vătaf (overseer, steward), șatră (tent camp of Roma)

**Disputed** (2): kam (perhaps (epistemic adverb); < cam), musaj (must (modal); < musai)

### Yiddish

Sources: the list printed by Lazăr Șăineanu in 1892 for the Yiddish spoken in Romania; for the dance names of the klezmer repertoire, the traditional music of East European Jews, a study by Walter Zev Feldman.

For most of the words the only source read is Șăineanu's list of 1892, which says that the Yiddish of Romania “has also borrowed a series of Romanian words”; no dictionary of Yiddish was read. For 25 of them Șăineanu gives only the Romanian word, without the Yiddish form. Feldman derives from Romanian the genre names hora, zhok (from joc, dance) and sârba.

counted: 43 · disputed: 1 · candidates not counted: 3

Of those counted, in the standard language: 0; dialect words: 43; obsolete or dated: 0. By kind of thing: nature 11, house and clothes 10, market and law 6, music and custom 5, food 5, people 3, field and cattle 2, words for ideas 1. 38 of them rest only on the list of a Romanian linguist (Șăineanu 1892), with no dictionary of the receiving language behind them.

**Confirmed from Romanian** (43): ange (a klezmer dance genre; < hangu), arici (hedgehog), berbec (ram), bordei (dug-out hut), broske (frog; < broască), caisă (apricot), chändl (inn; < han), clește (pincers), čoră (crow; < cioară), crai (libertine), drēm (dram (small weight); < dram), dudă (mulberry), dulap (cupboard), gherlă (stream, channel; < gârlă), hora (a slow klezmer dance genre in triple metre; < horă), kánter (scales; < cântar), koje (rind, peel; < coajă), labă (paw), londre (a klezmer dance genre; < oleandre), magazie (storehouse, shop), maimuță (monkey), moșie (estate, heritage), măgar (donkey), nepot (nephew, grandson), ókă (oka (unit of weight); < oca), pardé (curtain; < perdea), pepene (melon), potkovă (horseshoe; < potcoavă), primăvară (spring (season)), păpușoi (maize), skap-en (to escape; < scăpa), strugure (grape), sârba (a klezmer dance genre; < sârbă), sămânță (seed), talpă (sole (of foot or shoe)), tavan (ceiling), tavă (tray), tomnă (autumn; < toamnă), vatră (hearth), zarzără (apricot (wild apricot)), zhok (a klezmer dance genre of the hora type; < joc), șanț (ditch), țăren-er (peasant; < țăran)

**Disputed** (1): bulgarish (Bulgarian-style dance (klezmer genre); < bulgărească)

### English

Sources: the American Heritage Dictionary, the Random House Unabridged and Etymonline. The Oxford English Dictionary, Merriam-Webster and Collins were not read.

English has two words that came from Romanian through another language, according to the dictionaries read: pastrami, through Yiddish, and hora, through Modern Hebrew. Brynza is only the name of the East European cheese. Vampire, boyar, voivode and haiduk do not come from Romanian according to the dictionaries read.

counted: 2 · disputed: 1 · candidates not counted: 7



**Came through another language** (2): hora (traditional circle dance (Romania, Israel); < horă), pastrami (highly seasoned smoked or cured beef, thinly sliced; < pastramă)

**Names of Romanian things** (1): brynza (sheep's-milk cheese of Eastern Europe; < brânză)

**Disputed** (1): hospodar (title of the princes of Moldavia and Wallachia; < hospodar)

## The same word, different verdicts

Below are the Romanian words looked up in at least three languages. A solid label means the dictionary of that language derives it from Romanian; a hatched one, that it hesitates or names another source. The best-known shepherd words are also the most disputed.

Baci, the head shepherd. For Polish baca, four sources give four routes. The great dictionary of the Polish Academy traces it to Romanian baci, which it derives in turn from Serbo-Croatian; the borrowed form would have been bacza, and the Polish word is on record from 1682. The PWN dictionary names Slovak and Hungarian and does not mention Romanian. Brückner took it from Hungarian, and the Hungarian word from Romanian. A 2025 study of the dialect of the Spiš region holds that it came from Serbian. Of Slovak bača, Králik writes that it is a word of Carpathian pastoral culture of “insufficiently clear” origin, perhaps from Romanian. And Skok, for Serbian and Croatian: it cannot be known who borrowed it from whom.

Cucuruz, maize. For Polish kukurydza, PWN arrives, through Ukrainian, at Romanian cucuruz in the sense of a fir cone; the Academy's dictionary brings it from Ukrainian and Turkish; Brückner suspected a South Slavic origin. The Ukrainian dictionary allows for the possibility that Romanian formed cucuruz from a Ukrainian word and that Ukrainian later borrowed it back as кукурудза.

Colibă, hut. The dictionary of standard Czech derives Czech koliba from Romanian colibă, and PWN gives the same origin for Polish koliba. Rejzek, Králik and the Polish Academy's dictionary start from Greek. The Ukrainian dictionary calls Romanian mediation “probable”.

Vatră, hearth. Brückner wrote that the Poles have the word “from the Vlach shepherds”. The Ukrainian dictionary gives Romanian, or Iranian through Turkish or Romani, as possible sources of Ukrainian ватра, and notes that Romanian vatră is itself held to be inherited, Iranian or Albanian. Králik: “in the end probably from Romanian”. The Hungarian dictionary mentions dialect vátra (1613) under another word and derives it from Romanian vatră, or from Slovak or Ukrainian.

## Three long roads: the pie, the cured meat, the round dance

### Plăcintă: as far as Vienna

placenta (Latin) → plăcintă (Romanian) → palacsinta (Hungarian, 1577) → Palatschinke (Austrian German)

In Vienna a pancake is a Palatschinke. Duden gives its origin in three steps: Hungarian palacsinta, from Romanian plăcintă (a pie), from Latin placenta. The Hungarian etymological dictionary labels palacsinta Román jövevényszó, a Romanian loanword, and gives its first recorded form as palaczinta in 1577, meaning a flat cake; the pancake sense appears about 1600.

The Hungarian dictionary also notes the road onward: from Hungarian the word passed into Austrian German, Serbian and Croatian, Czech and Slovak. Králik confirms it for Slovak: palacinka comes from Hungarian, and the Hungarian word from Romanian.

The dictionaries do not agree everywhere. Duden takes Palatschinke straight to Hungarian; DWDS passes it through Czech or Slovak. The dictionary of standard Czech derives palačinka from Slovak, Hungarian and Latin, without naming Romanian; Rejzek writes “most probably through Romanian”. That is why the Czech word is listed here as disputed.

Eastwards: плачинда in Ukrainian, with no intermediary. For плацинда in the southern Russian dialects, Vasmer starts from Romanian but notes that the sounds of the word point to a Greek intermediary, which he has not found attested.

### Pastramă: as far as New York

pastırma (Turkish) → pastramă (Romanian) → pastrame (Yiddish) → pastrami (English)

The Random House dictionary gives the same road as the American Heritage as far as Romanian, and calls the Romanian word “a Balkanism of uncertain origin”, “perhaps ultimately” Turkish.

Etymonline suggests that salami “probably” influenced the spelling with -mi; the Jewish English Lexicon says the same of the pronunciation. The same lexicon says the word was brought into American English by Yiddish-speaking Jews from Romania, in New York, at the end of the 19th century.

The real dispute lies one step earlier: where Romanian got the word. DEX, the standard dictionary of Romanian, derives it from Modern Greek and from Turkish; Ciorănescu's etymological dictionary, from Turkish, with an older Greek root. On the step from Romanian into Yiddish, the dictionaries read agree. Dave Wilton notes, however, that older dictionaries wrongly brought it through Hungarian or from Latin, and that the earliest fully English use he knows is an advertisement by a Jewish butcher in Richmond, Virginia, of 12 May 1899. Etymonline gives the year 1916, Random House 1935–1940.

### Horă: into Yiddish and, through Hebrew, into English

horă (Romanian) → הורה (Modern Hebrew) → hora (English)

The American Heritage Dictionary derives English hora from Modern Hebrew, and the Hebrew word from Romanian horă, the round dance, which came in its turn, perhaps through Bulgarian or Turkish, from Greek. DEX derives the Romanian word from Bulgarian. No Hebrew etymological dictionary was read; the step through Hebrew rests here on the English dictionaries alone. Random House dates English hora to 1875–80 and still derives it from Modern Hebrew; the two do not fit and are given here as printed.

In Yiddish the road is documented by musicologists. Walter Zev Feldman writes that the names of some genres of the klezmer repertoire, among them hora, zhok and sârba, are derived from the Romanian words horă, joc and sârbă. The Hungarian dictionary has hóra too, as the name of the Romanian dance.

## “Vlach” does not always mean Romanian

“Vlach” (влах, vlah, βλάχος, wołoch, oláh) is a name given from outside, and its meaning changes with the source and the period. It can refer to speakers of Romance languages in Eastern Europe, north of the Danube or in the Balkans, where Aromanian and Megleno-Romanian are spoken today. The history of the name is on the page Wales and Wallachia. In the northern Carpathians “Vlach” also came to describe a way of life, sheep-herding, whatever language the herders spoke. A 2024 study of the Polish Carpathians counts 479 settlements founded under “Vlach law”, the legal regime of herders' villages, or with an attested Vlach presence and says that this kind of settlement lost its originally ethnic character.

So a word that its source derives only “from the Vlachs”, without saying from which language, is not counted here as Romanian. Polish watra in Brückner is one. Slovak kľag (rennet) is derived by Králik from Aromanian. The words of this kind, 15 in all, are listed separately below.

Greek. In Greek, three words are derived by the sources from “Vlach” or from Aromanian, the Romance language spoken in the Pindus and Thessaly. In 1902 George Murnu gathered a list of 155 words; he held about 89 of them to be loans and only 16 to be widespread among Greeks. As his introduction says, by “Romanian” he meant the language of the Romance populations pushed south. None is counted here as a loan from Romanian.

Albanian. Romanian and Albanian share a few dozen old words; it is not settled whether one borrowed them from the other or both have them from an older language. They are the subject of the page on Dacian words. Orel's Albanian etymological dictionary enters six of the words looked up as borrowed from Romanian: trajstë (bag), flojere (flute), gushë (throat), kësulë (cap), rrojbë (safflower) and tërsirë (a rope), and sak through South Slavic. The first four start from traistă, fluier, gușă and căciulă, words that both languages have. For three of them (fluier, gușă and căciulă) older scholars proposed the opposite road, from Albanian into Romanian. Ciorănescu, in his etymological dictionary of Romanian, records them and does not follow them: he writes that Albanian flojere comes “certainly” from Romanian, although Berneker had looked to Albanian for the origin of the Romanian word; he lists the Albanian words for traistă and gușă among those taken from Romanian, although Miklosich and Densusianu derived gușă from Albanian; and for căciulă he calls the Albanian origin proposed by Cihac “hardly probable” and writes that “the contrary seems more certain”. For traistă, fluier and căciulă, DEX, the standard dictionary of Romanian, writes only “Cf. alb.”; Orel himself adds that Romanian căciulă goes back in turn to Albanian, and the Bulgarian etymological dictionary notes that Albanian gushë may come from Bulgarian or straight from Romanian. Out of caution these four are not counted here and are listed as disputed. Counted are rrojbë (from roibă, madder), tërsirë (from târsână) and sak.

Turkish. The Turkish dictionaries read derive none of the eight words looked up from Romanian: boyar, funda, kaşkaval, kopil, mamaliga, masa, pelin, voyvoda. For masa (table), Nişanyan starts from Italian and adds that the Turkish form may have come through the Balkan languages. In Bulgarian, on the other hand, Capidan enters маса as coming from Romanian. In the dictionary of the Turkish Language Association the label “Rumca” means Greek.

## How many words did Romanian give? The published counts differ with what they count

The published counts cannot be added up or compared. Some count only the standard language, others every dialect; some count variants and derivatives, others do not. The table sets the counts side by side and shows what each author counted.

| Language | Who counted | How many | What was counted |
|---|---|---|---|
| Hungarian | ÚESz, read in full | 102 | entries whose first explanation names Romanian, out of 12,842; they include lej, móc, román, left out here |
| Hungarian | Zaicz 2006, the list at the end of the dictionary | 24 | headwords entered under “Romanian loanwords”, five with a question mark, including cigány, móc, román and lej |
| Hungarian | Bakos Ferenc 1982, as reported by Borbély 2021 | 19 | words held to be full members of the common language |
| Hungarian | Zsemlyei 2017 | 122 | Romanian elements in the standard register, not restricted to Transylvania |
| Hungarian | Zsemlyei 2017 | 2,300 | elements of Romanian origin in the Hungarian dialects of Transylvania |
| Hungarian | Benő 2004 | 4,435 | lexemes gathered from the Csángó and Transylvanian dialects; the author holds 461 to be really widespread |
| Ukrainian | Vrabie 1967 | 353 | non-derived words, dialects included; the author calls the number “in any case a minimum” |
| Ukrainian | Robciuc 2014 | 758 | the author's own list; 200 of them are absent from earlier work |
| the Slavic languages | Armaș et al. 1968, as reported by Bănică 2013 | ≈ 400 | words of Romanian origin in all the Slavic languages together |
| Slovak | Niță-Armaș 1966, as reported by Alexandru 1974 | 30 | loans found in a survey in Slovakia |
| Serbian and Croatian | Gămulescu 1983, as reported by Popeț 2017 | 300 | common nouns of Romanian origin in what the author calls Serbo-Croatian, “dialect variants included” |
| Polish | Budu and Stachowski 2024 | > 60 | Turkish words in older Polish, examined for a route through Romanian; for most, the authors rule it out |
| German | Bănică 2013 | 858 | Romanian words in the Transylvanian Saxon dialects, 620 of them used by all speakers; the works behind the figure were not read |
| Greek | Murnu 1902 | 155 · 89 · 16 | words listed; held to be loans (from Aromanian); widespread among all Greeks |
| Romani | Gjerdman and Ljungberg 1963, as reported by Hancock 2024 | ≈ 1,750 | non-inherited words, “overwhelmingly from Romanian”, in a 3,600-word glossary of the Kalderash dialect of Sweden |
| Yiddish | Șăineanu 1892 | 39 | the words he prints as examples for the Yiddish of Romania (each list ends in “etc.”); 38 are counted here |

## How the count was made

The unit. A loan is a word in a language: bryndza in Polish and bryndza in Slovak are two. Derivatives of the same word are not counted separately. Names of people, places, peoples and currencies are left out. Names of Romanian things used only when speaking about Romania (cujka, plum brandy; Doina, a kind of song) are counted apart: there are 16.

What “from Romanian” means. What counts is the language the word was taken from, not its older origin. Bryndza is counted, although Romanian brânză has no agreed etymology. A word is “confirmed” if a dictionary of the language that received it, or a study devoted to Romanian loans in that language, derives it from Romanian and no source read names another route. It is “through another language” when it was borrowed through an intermediary language, as pastrami was through Yiddish. It is “disputed” if the sources contradict each other or the dictionary itself writes “perhaps”; an “apparently” or an “also through another language” added to the verdict does not take the word out of the count, but is shown in full. The rule was fixed before the search began; after the first count one point was settled: the labels “Moldavian language” and “East Romance languages” in the Ukrainian dictionary are read as Romanian.

Where the words looked up came from. The search started from the categories of the English Wiktionary, from the specialist lists and from the examples usually cited for each language. 153 candidates are not counted: 100 because the dictionary gives another origin, 53 because no dictionary of the language could be read or the one read gives no etymology. Among the latter are Yiddish pastrame, which the English, German and Turkish dictionaries read derive from Romanian, and Hebrew הורה, which the English dictionaries do.

What could not be read. The Oxford English Dictionary, Merriam-Webster and Collins; the historical dictionary of Slovak; six of the eight volumes of the Bulgarian etymological dictionary; Bakos Ferenc's monograph on the Romanian elements of Hungarian (1982), known here only through those who cite it; the etymological dictionaries of Yiddish, Hebrew and Romani. The form of some Bulgarian, Serbian, Greek, Romani and Yiddish words was verified on the printed page of the source; for some of the Bulgarian words Capidan gives only a transcription in Latin letters, reproduced here as he prints it.

Quotations. From the dictionaries only the label of origin is given, in its original form (“Román jövevényszó”, “z rum.”), with a link to the entry.

## All 738 words checked

| Language | Word | Meaning | Romanian word | Verdict |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Bulgarian | fičor | herdsman's apprentice; a children's game | fecior | confirmed |
| Bulgarian | krecavo | curly | creț | confirmed |
| Bulgarian | urda | whey cheese | urdă | confirmed |
| Bulgarian | абонат | subscriber | abonat | confirmed |
| Bulgarian | бордей | dugout, earth-house | bordei | confirmed |
| Bulgarian | ботуш | long boot | botuș | confirmed |
| Bulgarian | бръндза | sheep's-milk cheese | brânză | confirmed |
| Bulgarian | бурта | stomach, belly | burtă | confirmed |
| Bulgarian | бухта | small fried dough pastry | bucată | confirmed |
| Bulgarian | бухтар | cook of a market-gardeners' gang | bucătar | confirmed |
| Bulgarian | бъзой | drone pipe of a bagpipe | bizoi | confirmed |
| Bulgarian | бъц | pole with a pointed end, used to lift the hot roasting plate | băț | confirmed |
| Bulgarian | вунтур | a large eagle | vultur | confirmed |
| Bulgarian | гринда | large hewn beam | grindă | confirmed |
| Bulgarian | гропа | pit, hole (lime pit; slaughterhouse pit) | groapă | confirmed |
| Bulgarian | гуша | crop, throat, double chin | gușă | confirmed |
| Bulgarian | дрептар | mason's straightedge | dreptar | confirmed |
| Bulgarian | дричка | mason's float (small board for smoothing plaster) | drișcă | confirmed |
| Bulgarian | дунга | pressed crease of a garment | dungă | confirmed |
| Bulgarian | завракчия | sly, mischievous person | zavragiu | confirmed |
| Bulgarian | зара | buttermilk | zară | confirmed |
| Bulgarian | згарда | spiked collar of a sheepdog | zgardă | confirmed |
| Bulgarian | зър | whey | zer | confirmed |
| Bulgarian | козунак | sweet Easter bread | cozonac | confirmed |
| Bulgarian | мамалига | cornmeal porridge | mămăligă | name of a Romanian thing |
| Bulgarian | маса | table | masă | confirmed |
| Bulgarian | смирдар | alpine rose, Rhododendron myrtifolium | smârdar | confirmed |
| Bulgarian | сокрул | father-in-law (obsolete) | socru | confirmed |
| Bulgarian | софраджерия | dining room | sofragerie | confirmed |
| Bulgarian | струнк | lathe | strung | confirmed |
| Bulgarian | турта | unleavened bread, flat loaf | turtă | confirmed |
| Bulgarian | guna | sheepskin coat | gună | Aromanian / “Vlach” |
| Bulgarian | kalčuni | felt slippers | călțuni | Aromanian / “Vlach” |
| Bulgarian | kъrlig | shepherd's crook | cârlig | Aromanian / “Vlach” |
| Bulgarian | mucka | pig's snout | muță | Aromanian / “Vlach” |
| Bulgarian | mura | stomach lining; rennet | mură | Aromanian / “Vlach” |
| Bulgarian | вакъл | black-eyed (of sheep) |  | Aromanian / “Vlach” |
| Bulgarian | катинар | padlock | cătinar | Aromanian / “Vlach” |
| Bulgarian | mandzara | she-goat kept at home for milk (Rhodope) | mândzare | disputed |
| Bulgarian | банка | bank (financial institution) | bancă | disputed |
| Bulgarian | бът | iron axle of a mill wheel; tongue of a balance | băț | disputed |
| Bulgarian | ватах | head of a Whitsun (kalushari) dance band; master of a foundry (Samokov) | vătaf | disputed |
| Bulgarian | зестра | dowry | zestre | disputed |
| Bulgarian | пуйка | turkey hen | puică | disputed |
| Bulgarian | табла | backgammon board and game | tablă | disputed |
| Bulgarian | чутура | wine flask; grain measure; pestle trough | ciutură | disputed |
| Czech | brynza | soft sheep's-milk cheese | brânză | confirmed |
| Czech | cap | billy goat (dialect) | țap | confirmed |
| Czech | pakura | fuel oil, mazut (technical, rare) | păcură | confirmed |
| Czech | redikat se | to move away (dialect) | ridica | confirmed |
| Czech | trembita | long Hutsul alpine horn | trâmbiță | name of a Romanian thing |
| Czech | urda | whey curd (sheep) | urdă | confirmed |
| Czech | žinčice | boiled whey of sheep's milk | jintiță | confirmed |
| Czech | čutora | flat round flask for travel | ciutură | through another language |
| Czech | grapa | steep slope, ravine (dialect) | groapă | through another language |
| Czech | strunga | pen where ewes are gathered before milking | strungă | through another language |
| Czech | bača | head shepherd (Slovakia, Wallachia) | baci | disputed |
| Czech | četina | conifer needle, branches (dialect) | cetină | disputed |
| Czech | fujara | shepherd flute | fluier | disputed |
| Czech | geleta | wooden dish for sheep milk (dialect) | găleată | disputed |
| Czech | grúň | mountain slope, usually grassy (dialect) | grui | disputed |
| Czech | hafera | bilberry (dialect) | aferă | disputed |
| Czech | kočkodan | guenon (African monkey) | coșcodan | disputed |
| Czech | koliba | wooden shepherd hut | colibă | disputed |
| Czech | košár | portable pen for livestock (dialect) | coșar | disputed |
| Czech | krdel | flock, crowd (dialect, Slovak) | cârd | disputed |
| Czech | palačinka | pancake | plăcintă | disputed |
| Czech | portáš | member of the Wallachian armed border guard (17th-18th c.) |  | disputed |
| Czech | prť | sheep path, mountain path (dialect, Slovak) | pârtie | disputed |
| Czech | sihla | young conifer forest; swamp (dialect) | sihlă | disputed |
| Czech | vatra | large open-air fire | vatră | disputed |
| Czech | arkán | Hutsul men's dance | arcan | not counted: no dictionary of the language read, or no etymology given |
| Czech | kabanos | thin dry sausage | cabanos | not counted: no dictionary of the language read, or no etymology given |
| Czech | kukuřice | maize |  | not counted: the dictionary gives another origin |
| Czech | salaš | simple shepherd hut |  | not counted: the dictionary gives another origin |
| Czech | valach | shepherd (east Moravia); gelding |  | not counted: the dictionary gives another origin |
| German | Brimsen | soft fresh sheep's-milk cheese (Liptauer ingredient) | brânză | confirmed |
| German | Doina | Romanian folk song (doină) | doină | name of a Romanian thing |
| German | Pomānǝ | alms and meal for the dead (pomană) | pomană | confirmed |
| German | pomenin | to remember, mention, come to oneself (a pomeni) | pomeni | confirmed |
| German | Palatschinke | thin rolled pancake, often filled with jam | plăcintă | through another language |
| German | Pastrami | spiced, cured and smoked beef | pastramă | through another language |
| German | Ramasuri | great confusion, commotion | ramasuri | disputed |
| German | Heiduck | historical servant, soldier | hăiduc | not counted: the dictionary gives another origin |
| German | Kukuruz | maize (Austrian) | cucuruz | not counted: the dictionary gives another origin |
| Greek | γκιόσα | goat with a black back and white belly; (fig., insult) ugly or cranky old woman | ghes | Aromanian / “Vlach” |
| Greek | σκάντσα | grief, complaint (Epirus) | scantă | Aromanian / “Vlach” |
| Greek | στρούγκα | temporary pen for milking sheep and goats; (fig.) a blind-obedience group | strungă | Aromanian / “Vlach” |
| Greek | Βετοῦλι | young goat (up to a year old) | vitul' | disputed |
| Greek | λάϊους | black sheep | laiu | disputed |
| Greek | μανάρι | fattened lamb; (fig.) darling | mănar | disputed |
| Greek | ούρδα | whey cheese (mizithra) | urdă | disputed |
| Greek | φλογέρα | shepherd's flute | fluier | disputed |
| Greek | ἀστριάχα | eaves, porch roof | astreahă | not counted: no dictionary of the language read, or no etymology given |
| Greek | γκλίτσα | shepherd's crook |  | not counted: no dictionary of the language read, or no etymology given |
| Greek | κοπέλι | boy, young man; apprentice | copil | not counted: the dictionary gives another origin |
| Greek | μούργος | big sheepdog; ill-bred person |  | not counted: the dictionary gives another origin |
| Greek | μπάτσος | slap |  | not counted: the dictionary gives another origin |
| Greek | μπομπότα | cornbread |  | not counted: the dictionary gives another origin |
| Greek | στάνη | sheepfold | stână | not counted: the dictionary gives another origin |
| Greek | τσέλιγκας | owner of large flocks; head of a shepherd clan |  | not counted: the dictionary gives another origin |
| Greek | φλώρος | small songbird; a dandy |  | not counted: the dictionary gives another origin |
| Greek | φούρκα | forked stake; gallows; anger |  | not counted: the dictionary gives another origin |
| English | brynza | sheep's-milk cheese of Eastern Europe | brânză | name of a Romanian thing |
| English | hora | traditional circle dance (Romania, Israel) | horă | through another language |
| English | pastrami | highly seasoned smoked or cured beef, thinly sliced | pastramă | through another language |
| English | hospodar | title of the princes of Moldavia and Wallachia | hospodar | name of a Romanian thing |
| English | boyar | Eastern European noble | boier | not counted: the dictionary gives another origin |
| English | haiduk | Balkan outlaw / Hungarian foot-soldier | hăiduc | not counted: the dictionary gives another origin |
| English | kashkaval | yellow cheese | cașcaval | not counted: the dictionary gives another origin |
| English | mamaliga | cornmeal porridge | mămăligă | not counted: no dictionary of the language read, or no etymology given |
| English | pandour | Habsburg frontier soldier | pandur | not counted: the dictionary gives another origin |
| English | vampire | undead blood-drinker | vampir | not counted: the dictionary gives another origin |
| English | voivode | governor, military commander | voievod | not counted: the dictionary gives another origin |
| French | pastrami | pastrami, spiced cured beef | pastramă | not counted: no dictionary of the language read, or no etymology given |
| Hebrew | הורה | circle dance | horă | not counted: no dictionary of the language read, or no etymology given |
| Hebrew | טמבל | fool (tembel) | tembel | not counted: no dictionary of the language read, or no etymology given |
| Hungarian | áfonya | bilberry, blueberry (shrub and berry) | afină | confirmed |
| Hungarian | ármás | armed man; officer of the Romanian voivode's court; bailiff | armaș | name of a Romanian thing |
| Hungarian | bács | head shepherd responsible for a flock | baci | confirmed |
| Hungarian | bálmos | dish of sheep's cheese boiled with cornmeal | balmoș | confirmed |
| Hungarian | berbécs | ram, wether; also pile-driver ram | berbec | confirmed |
| Hungarian | beszerika | Orthodox church of the Romanians; brightly painted house | biserică | name of a Romanian thing |
| Hungarian | bulándra | rag; (vulgar) loose woman | buleandră | confirmed |
| Hungarian | burdó | bagpipe; leather bag for curd | burduf | confirmed |
| Hungarian | buszujog | basil | busuioc | confirmed |
| Hungarian | cáp | billy goat; castrated male animal | țap | confirmed |
| Hungarian | cigája | Tsigai sheep (breed); its wool | țigaie | confirmed |
| Hungarian | cimbora | mate, pal; originally partner in joint field work | sâmbră | confirmed |
| Hungarian | csercse | earring; dewlap, wattle | cercel | confirmed |
| Hungarian | csimpolya | bagpipe | cimpoi | confirmed |
| Hungarian | csoma | plague, epidemic; curse word | ciumă | confirmed |
| Hungarian | csula | crop-eared, lop-eared (of sheep, cattle) | ciul | confirmed |
| Hungarian | cujka | a kind of (Romanian) plum brandy | țuică | name of a Romanian thing |
| Hungarian | dajnál | to bawl, sing a (Romanian folk) song | doină | confirmed |
| Hungarian | dancs | unclean, dirty; Roma child | danci | confirmed |
| Hungarian | dászkál | Romanian village teacher and cantor | dascăl | name of a Romanian thing |
| Hungarian | döblöc | pumpkin, baking pumpkin; (adj.) stocky | dovleac | confirmed |
| Hungarian | domika | bread soup with cheese or curd | dumicat | confirmed |
| Hungarian | ester | sterile, barren | știr | confirmed |
| Hungarian | esztena | sheepfold; shepherd's hut, summer sheep station | stână | confirmed |
| Hungarian | esztrenga | sheep pen, milking enclosure | strungă | confirmed |
| Hungarian | fáta | (Romanian) girl | fată | name of a Romanian thing |
| Hungarian | ficsúr | fop, dandy; originally Romanian lad; small wooden measure | fecior | confirmed |
| Hungarian | furulya | flute, shepherd's pipe | fluier | confirmed |
| Hungarian | fustély | knobbed stick, cudgel | fuște | confirmed |
| Hungarian | fuszuly | bean | fasole | confirmed |
| Hungarian | fuzsitos | half-witted, eccentric; quarrelsome | fugit | confirmed |
| Hungarian | gergelice | grain weevil; bedbug | gărgăriță | confirmed |
| Hungarian | gornyik | forest warden, village servant, field watchman | gornic | confirmed |
| Hungarian | gulászta | beestings (first milk) | coraslă | confirmed |
| Hungarian | gusa | goitre; bird's crop | gușă | confirmed |
| Hungarian | haricska | buckwheat | hrișcă | confirmed |
| Hungarian | hóra | hora, Romanian ring dance | horă | name of a Romanian thing |
| Hungarian | iszkumpia | smoke tree (Cotinus coggygria) | scumpie | confirmed |
| Hungarian | kalácsol | to indicate, give away, lead to the trace | colac | confirmed |
| Hungarian | kaláka | voluntary communal work; corvée | clacă | confirmed |
| Hungarian | kápra | she-goat | capră | confirmed |
| Hungarian | karuca | small unshod cart | căruță | confirmed |
| Hungarian | kaskavál | a kind of hard sheep cheese | cașcaval | confirmed |
| Hungarian | katrinca | kerchief (c. 1405); apron skirt of peasant women (from 1612) | catrință | confirmed |
| Hungarian | kilinta | cheese-press dish; meat-beating board | crintă | confirmed |
| Hungarian | kirlán | young castrated sheep | cârlan | confirmed |
| Hungarian | kocsorba | coal rake, poker | cociorvă | confirmed |
| Hungarian | kokojsza | bilberry; cowberry | coacăză | confirmed |
| Hungarian | kolindál | to go carol-singing from house to house; to roam | colinda | confirmed |
| Hungarian | kompona | balance scales; well sweep; measure of cheese | cumpănă | confirmed |
| Hungarian | korosnya | bundle of brushwood carried on the back | croșnă | confirmed |
| Hungarian | kotec | pen, coop; hut | coteț | confirmed |
| Hungarian | kozsók | sheepskin jacket | cojoc | confirmed |
| Hungarian | kozsokár | furrier | cojocar | confirmed |
| Hungarian | kurkálódik | to get tangled, entangled | încurca | confirmed |
| Hungarian | lák | lake, pond, marsh | lac | confirmed |
| Hungarian | lestyán | lovage (Levisticum) | leuștean | confirmed |
| Hungarian | lunguj | long log laid along a ramp (Transylvanian Hungarian) | lung | confirmed |
| Hungarian | lunka | meadow or field by a stream; wood, thicket; valley | luncă | confirmed |
| Hungarian | macsuka | cudgel, knob of a club | măciucă | confirmed |
| Hungarian | málé | millet; maize; maize cake | mălai | confirmed |
| Hungarian | mamaliga | polenta, maize porridge | mămăligă | confirmed |
| Hungarian | matásza | silk thread | mătase | confirmed |
| Hungarian | mátka (anyaméh) | womb; queen bee | matcă | confirmed |
| Hungarian | mióra | ewe lamb, young ewe | mioară | confirmed |
| Hungarian | mokány | tough, rough (person); Wallachian Romanian; highlander | mocan | confirmed |
| Hungarian | mutuj | mute; clumsy; feeble-minded (Transylvanian Hungarian) | mut | confirmed |
| Hungarian | nótin | young sheep, mostly female | noaten | confirmed |
| Hungarian | orda | sweet curd of sheep's whey | urdă | confirmed |
| Hungarian | oszkotár | shepherd | scutar | confirmed |
| Hungarian | pakulár | shepherd | păcurar | confirmed |
| Hungarian | pakura | cart grease; petroleum, crude oil, fuel oil | păcură | confirmed |
| Hungarian | palacsinta | pancake, crêpe (earlier: flat cake) | plăcintă | confirmed |
| Hungarian | panusa | maize stalk; corn husk | pănușă | confirmed |
| Hungarian | pláj | mountain; mountain path; alpine meadow | plai | confirmed |
| Hungarian | pojána | forest or alpine clearing | poiană | confirmed |
| Hungarian | pomána | gift; funeral meal; alms | pomană | confirmed |
| Hungarian | pópa | Orthodox priest | popă | confirmed |
| Hungarian | poronty | small child, brat; young of certain animals | prunc | confirmed |
| Hungarian | prikulics | ghost; werewolf | pricolici | confirmed |
| Hungarian | puca | child's genitals (vulgar); potato dumpling | puță | confirmed |
| Hungarian | purzsa | short-woolled (sheep); Romanian sheep breed | pârj | confirmed |
| Hungarian | putina | small wooden tub | putină | confirmed |
| Hungarian | rezsnyice | hand mill, grinder | râșniță | confirmed |
| Hungarian | szemunca | offspring, progeny | sămânță | confirmed |
| Hungarian | szilimány | unfortunate, helpless; thin, frail | sărman | confirmed |
| Hungarian | szlanina | bacon, cured pork fat | slănină | confirmed |
| Hungarian | szokotál | to count, reckon; consider | socoti | confirmed |
| Hungarian | tácsol | to silence, to shout down | tăcea | confirmed |
| Hungarian | tilinkó | simple flute, shepherd's pipe | tilincă | confirmed |
| Hungarian | tóka | wooden or metal signal board; signal bell | toacă | confirmed |
| Hungarian | tokány | tokány, stew of meat strips; polenta | tocană | confirmed |
| Hungarian | tretina | a tax paid in animals by Romanian serfs; tithe ransom | tretină | name of a Romanian thing |
| Hungarian | turma | flock of sheep | turmă | confirmed |
| Hungarian | ulica | narrow street | uliță | confirmed |
| Hungarian | vecsin | Romanian freedman (historical) | vecin | name of a Romanian thing |
| Hungarian | virse | fish trap, weir basket | vârșă | confirmed |
| Hungarian | zsitár | field guard, forest warden | jitar | confirmed |
| Hungarian | alak | spelt, einkorn (alakor) | alac | disputed |
| Hungarian | árkány | lasso, halter | arcan | disputed |
| Hungarian | belice | white sheep | beliță | disputed |
| Hungarian | bojár | boyar (Romanian nobleman); also Russian-type boyar | boier | disputed |
| Hungarian | bosztán | vegetable garden, melon field; pumpkin | bostan | disputed |
| Hungarian | bráha | bad brandy; mash | bragă | disputed |
| Hungarian | brindza | (soft) sheep's cheese | brânză | disputed |
| Hungarian | buruján | weed, thicket | buruiană | disputed |
| Hungarian | cserge | coarse woollen blanket; tent | cergă | disputed |
| Hungarian | csobán | shepherd; sheepdog | cioban | disputed |
| Hungarian | csuporka | mushroom (champignon) | ciupercă | disputed |
| Hungarian | csutora | flask; drinking vessel; pipe stem | ciutură | disputed |
| Hungarian | deget | cart grease; tar | dohot | disputed |
| Hungarian | dránica | shingle | draniță | disputed |
| Hungarian | galeta | pail, milking bucket | găleată | disputed |
| Hungarian | garád | fence, railing; water channel | gard | disputed |
| Hungarian | hiribi | boletus, cep | hrib | disputed |
| Hungarian | hodály | sheepfold; large stable | hodaie | disputed |
| Hungarian | huruba | hovel, hut | hrubă | disputed |
| Hungarian | ját | companion, age-mate | leat | disputed |
| Hungarian | kacor | curved knife; sickle |  | disputed |
| Hungarian | kaliba | hut, hovel | colibă | disputed |
| Hungarian | kalugyer | Orthodox monk | călugăr | disputed |
| Hungarian | kantár | steelyard; weight measure | cântar | disputed |
| Hungarian | kapkána | trap, snare | capcană | disputed |
| Hungarian | kátrány | tar | catran | disputed |
| Hungarian | kilim | kilim rug | chilim | disputed |
| Hungarian | kocsány | stalk; corn cob | cocean | disputed |
| Hungarian | krajnik | an official: bailiff, estate manager | crainic | disputed |
| Hungarian | kujak | fist |  | disputed |
| Hungarian | kukk | a ball game; (kukkra) high up | cuc | disputed |
| Hungarian | kukorica | maize | cucuruz | disputed |
| Hungarian | kusztora | clasp knife; surgeon's knife | custură | disputed |
| Hungarian | malágy | marshy thicket; a kind of willow | mladă | disputed |
| Hungarian | marázsa | fishing net; fish trap | mreajă | disputed |
| Hungarian | more | Roma man; Romanian lad (as a form of address) | măre | disputed |
| Hungarian | muszuj | a fabric; pleated skirt | musul | disputed |
| Hungarian | oka | old weight measure | oca | disputed |
| Hungarian | östör | goosefoot, fat hen | știr | disputed |
| Hungarian | padlizsán | aubergine | pătlăgea | disputed |
| Hungarian | perpence | millstone spindle (rynd) | pârpăriță | disputed |
| Hungarian | peszterce | mushrooms (various) |  | disputed |
| Hungarian | pite | pie, pastry |  | disputed |
| Hungarian | pohárnok | cup-bearer (court office) | paharnic | disputed |
| Hungarian | pulya | small; small child; coward | pui | disputed |
| Hungarian | purga | groats, porridge; maize cob | pârgă | disputed |
| Hungarian | rönköly | stocky person; log | trunchi | disputed |
| Hungarian | salavári | wide trousers | șalvari | disputed |
| Hungarian | suta | hornless, crop-horned; clumsy; doe (female roe deer) | ciut | disputed |
| Hungarian | szárma | stuffed cabbage | sarma | disputed |
| Hungarian | szécs | forest clearing | seci | disputed |
| Hungarian | szekszena | pack saddle; junk; brandy | sacsana | disputed |
| Hungarian | szokmány | frieze coat | sucman | disputed |
| Hungarian | topor | small hand axe | topor | disputed |
| Hungarian | vátra | hearth; charcoal-burners' site | vatră | disputed |
| Hungarian | zsendice | sweet whey | jintiță | disputed |
| Hungarian | abonament | no entry in the dictionary read |  | not counted: no dictionary of the language read, or no etymology given |
| Hungarian | ardéj | no entry in the dictionary read |  | not counted: no dictionary of the language read, or no etymology given |
| Hungarian | bacsa | head shepherd (dialect word) |  | not counted: the dictionary gives another origin |
| Hungarian | bani | no entry in the dictionary read |  | not counted: no dictionary of the language read, or no etymology given |
| Hungarian | berbence | keg, cheese vat |  | not counted: the dictionary gives another origin |
| Hungarian | bocskor | peasant sandal |  | not counted: the dictionary gives another origin |
| Hungarian | borkán | no entry in the dictionary read |  | not counted: no dictionary of the language read, or no etymology given |
| Hungarian | brenza | no entry in the dictionary read |  | not counted: no dictionary of the language read, or no etymology given |
| Hungarian | bulz | no entry in the dictionary read |  | not counted: no dictionary of the language read, or no etymology given |
| Hungarian | bunda | fur coat |  | not counted: no dictionary of the language read, or no etymology given |
| Hungarian | burjánzik | to run wild, to grow rank |  | not counted: the dictionary gives another origin |
| Hungarian | cápa | shark |  | not counted: the dictionary gives another origin |
| Hungarian | ciráda | ornament, decoration |  | not counted: the dictionary gives another origin |
| Hungarian | csorba | chipped, notched |  | not counted: the dictionary gives another origin |
| Hungarian | druzsba | no entry in the dictionary read |  | not counted: no dictionary of the language read, or no etymology given |
| Hungarian | flekken | grilled meat dish |  | not counted: the dictionary gives another origin |
| Hungarian | fuszulyka | no entry in the dictionary read |  | not counted: no dictionary of the language read, or no etymology given |
| Hungarian | háporty | bur-reed; broad-leaved reedmace |  | not counted: no dictionary of the language read, or no etymology given |
| Hungarian | havas | no entry in the dictionary read |  | not counted: no dictionary of the language read, or no etymology given |
| Hungarian | kabanna | no entry in the dictionary read |  | not counted: no dictionary of the language read, or no etymology given |
| Hungarian | kacsula | no entry in the dictionary read |  | not counted: no dictionary of the language read, or no etymology given |
| Hungarian | kalyiba | no entry in the dictionary read |  | not counted: no dictionary of the language read, or no etymology given |
| Hungarian | kopé | no entry in the dictionary read |  | not counted: no dictionary of the language read, or no etymology given |
| Hungarian | kukuj | no entry in the dictionary read |  | not counted: no dictionary of the language read, or no etymology given |
| Hungarian | majó | no entry in the dictionary read |  | not counted: no dictionary of the language read, or no etymology given |
| Hungarian | mál | front part, breast |  | not counted: the dictionary gives another origin |
| Hungarian | málna | raspberry |  | not counted: the dictionary gives another origin |
| Hungarian | miccs | no entry in the dictionary read |  | not counted: no dictionary of the language read, or no etymology given |
| Hungarian | mititej | no entry in the dictionary read |  | not counted: no dictionary of the language read, or no etymology given |
| Hungarian | mosolyog | to smile |  | not counted: the dictionary gives another origin |
| Hungarian | murok | carrot |  | not counted: the dictionary gives another origin |
| Hungarian | noaten | no entry in the dictionary read |  | not counted: no dictionary of the language read, or no etymology given |
| Hungarian | nyam | no entry in the dictionary read |  | not counted: no dictionary of the language read, or no etymology given |
| Hungarian | pacal | tripe |  | not counted: no dictionary of the language read, or no etymology given |
| Hungarian | performáns | no entry in the dictionary read |  | not counted: no dictionary of the language read, or no etymology given |
| Hungarian | pityóka | potato (dialect) |  | not counted: no dictionary of the language read, or no etymology given |
| Hungarian | puliszka | maize porridge |  | not counted: the dictionary gives another origin |
| Hungarian | punga | no entry in the dictionary read |  | not counted: no dictionary of the language read, or no etymology given |
| Hungarian | ringyó | loose woman (vulgar) |  | not counted: the dictionary gives another origin |
| Hungarian | rüh | scabies, mange |  | not counted: no dictionary of the language read, or no etymology given |
| Hungarian | szemerke | juniper |  | not counted: the dictionary gives another origin |
| Hungarian | szkotár | no entry in the dictionary read |  | not counted: no dictionary of the language read, or no etymology given |
| Hungarian | sztrunga | no entry in the dictionary read |  | not counted: no dictionary of the language read, or no etymology given |
| Hungarian | szufla | breath, strength |  | not counted: the dictionary gives another origin |
| Hungarian | szuflál | to breathe |  | not counted: no dictionary of the language read, or no etymology given |
| Hungarian | tészta | dough, pasta |  | not counted: the dictionary gives another origin |
| Hungarian | vajda | voivode |  | not counted: the dictionary gives another origin |
| Hungarian | vinetta | no entry in the dictionary read |  | not counted: no dictionary of the language read, or no etymology given |
| Hungarian | zakuszka | no entry in the dictionary read |  | not counted: no dictionary of the language read, or no etymology given |
| Hungarian | zsugál | to gamble |  | not counted: the dictionary gives another origin |
| Italian | zigaia | Romanian breed of sheep | țigaie | name of a Romanian thing |
| Macedonian | vatah | leader of the dancers (kalushari), Macedonia; foreman of a foundry | vătaf | disputed |
| Macedonian | витосувам се | to clear off, go away (imperative "витосај се") | evita | not counted: no dictionary of the language read, or no etymology given |
| Macedonian | гура | snapdragon (Antirrhinum majus), literally "mouth" | gură | not counted: no dictionary of the language read, or no etymology given |
| Macedonian | чутура | wooden flask for water, wine, brandy | ciutură | not counted: the dictionary gives another origin |
| Polish | achtnamele | peace treaty between the Porte and a Christian country (17th c.) | ahtiname | name of a Romanian thing |
| Polish | bryndza | sheep's-milk cheese (Podhale, Carpathians) | brânză | confirmed |
| Polish | bukat | young beef animal, calf for slaughter; its hide | bucată | confirmed |
| Polish | cap | billy goat (esp. castrated); male chamois | țap | confirmed |
| Polish | cygaj | sheep breed resembling the merino (tsigai) | țigaie | confirmed |
| Polish | cygarka | lamb (17th c.) | cigoje | confirmed |
| Polish | ferula | paddle used by the baca to stir and break the curd in the cheese kettle | ferula | confirmed |
| Polish | fujara | long shepherd's flute; (colloquial) clumsy person | fluier | confirmed |
| Polish | furda | trifle, thing of no account (dated) | furda | confirmed |
| Polish | gawra | bear's winter den | gaură | confirmed |
| Polish | hurda (urda) | fatty layer of whey curd on żętyca; whey cheese | urdă | confirmed |
| Polish | katerdziej | Wallachian ban (title, 1670) | cataragi | name of a Romanian thing |
| Polish | kałarasz | mounted courier, servant of a Wallachian/Moldavian prince (17th c.) | călăraș | name of a Romanian thing |
| Polish | kierdel | flock of sheep on mountain pasture; herd of chamois | cârd | confirmed |
| Polish | klag / klog | rennet of dried lamb or calf stomachs for cheese-making | chiag | confirmed |
| Polish | maczuga | club, cudgel | măciucă | confirmed |
| Polish | papusza | bundle of dried tobacco leaves (dated) | păpușă | confirmed |
| Polish | puciyra (puciera) | large wooden milk tub for sheep's milk | putină | confirmed |
| Polish | redyk | spring drive of sheep to mountain pasture; autumn return | ridica | confirmed |
| Polish | strąga | sheep-pen, milking enclosure | strungă | confirmed |
| Polish | żętyca | whey of sheep's milk | jintiță | confirmed |
| Polish | watra | bonfire (Carpathians, Podhale, Lemko, scouts) |  | Aromanian / “Vlach” |
| Polish | haratać | to slash, gash; to hit and wound | hărtăni | through another language |
| Polish | mamałyga | maize porridge | mămăligă | through another language |
| Polish | baca | head shepherd in the Polish Carpathians | baci | disputed |
| Polish | bombaradzi | cannon founder (1787) | cumbaragiu | name of a Romanian thing |
| Polish | bundz | fresh sheep-cheese mass, before it becomes bryndza |  | disputed |
| Polish | chusta | large scarf, shawl | fustă | disputed |
| Polish | dział (sense "mountain ridge") | mountain ridge (dialect sense) | deal | disputed |
| Polish | feredza | wide-sleeved Ottoman cloak (1760) | feregea | name of a Romanian thing |
| Polish | filiżanka | cup (tea, coffee) | filigean | disputed |
| Polish | fota | cotton wrap / apron (16th-19th c.) | fotă | name of a Romanian thing |
| Polish | gajda (gajdy) | bagpipes | gaidă | disputed |
| Polish | gieleta (galeta) | wooden milking pail (Podhale, Spiš) | găleată | disputed |
| Polish | groń (gruń) | broad gentle mountain ridge; hill | gruniu | disputed |
| Polish | hatihumajum | sultan's handwritten decree (19th c.) | hatihumaium | name of a Romanian thing |
| Polish | haładżija | coarse striped silk fabric (19th c.) | alagea | name of a Romanian thing |
| Polish | hospodar | title of the princes of Moldavia and Wallachia (historical) |  | name of a Romanian thing |
| Polish | jałagasy | Tatar military commander (1666) | ial agasi | name of a Romanian thing |
| Polish | koczkodan | guenon (monkey); ugly, oddly dressed person | coșcodan | disputed |
| Polish | koliba (koleba) | mountain shepherd's hut; rock shelter | colibă | disputed |
| Polish | koszara (koszar, dial. kosor) | portable sheep fold on mountain pasture | coșară | disputed |
| Polish | kukurydza | maize | cucuruz | disputed |
| Polish | kurta | large loose jacket | scurtă | disputed |
| Polish | samar | pack-saddle, packs (17th c.) | samar | name of a Romanian thing |
| Polish | serdengest | volunteer, forlorn-hope soldier (1678) | serdenghești | name of a Romanian thing |
| Polish | trombita (trembita) | long Hutsul alpine horn | trompetă | disputed |
| Polish | zahara | provisions, food supplies (c. 1690) | zaharea | name of a Romanian thing |
| Polish | bajura (bajoro) | bog, pool |  | not counted: no dictionary of the language read, or no etymology given |
| Polish | ciupaga | decorated Górale walking-axe |  | not counted: the dictionary gives another origin |
| Polish | dera (derka) | rug, horse blanket |  | not counted: the dictionary gives another origin |
| Polish | gazda | wealthy farmer (Podhale) |  | not counted: the dictionary gives another origin |
| Polish | halka | petticoat |  | not counted: the dictionary gives another origin |
| Polish | harpagan | driven, determined person (colloquial) |  | not counted: the dictionary gives another origin |
| Polish | horda (orda) | horde |  | not counted: the dictionary gives another origin |
| Polish | juhas | young shepherd |  | not counted: the dictionary gives another origin |
| Polish | karpiel | swede, turnip (Kraków dialect) |  | not counted: no dictionary of the language read, or no etymology given |
| Polish | lej | funnel, crater |  | not counted: the dictionary gives another origin |
| Polish | multanki (multan) | pan-pipes; executioner's sword |  | not counted: the dictionary gives another origin |
| Polish | szałas | hut, shelter |  | not counted: the dictionary gives another origin |
| Polish | turnia | rock tower, steep summit |  | not counted: the dictionary gives another origin |
| Polish | wataha | pack of wolves; band |  | not counted: the dictionary gives another origin |
| Polish | wałach | gelding |  | not counted: the dictionary gives another origin |
| Romani | aba | already (adverb) |  | confirmed |
| Romani | avére | wealth | avere | confirmed |
| Romani | báďu | form of address for an older man | bade | confirmed |
| Romani | balaúru | dragon | balaur | confirmed |
| Romani | bálta | swamp, pond | baltă | confirmed |
| Romani | bihol | buffalo | bivol | confirmed |
| Romani | bulibașă | headman of a Roma group | bulibașă | confirmed |
| Romani | burdúhu | sack | burduhan | confirmed |
| Romani | buzdugánu | cudgel | buzdugan | confirmed |
| Romani | červ | stag | cerb | confirmed |
| Romani | čitisar | to read | citi | confirmed |
| Romani | dáskalu | church cantor, teacher | dascăl | confirmed |
| Romani | de | since (preposition) | de | confirmed |
| Romani | destúl | enough | destul | confirmed |
| Romani | dóba | drum | dobă | confirmed |
| Romani | dóftoru | doctor | doftor | confirmed |
| Romani | dómnu | lord, gentleman | domn | confirmed |
| Romani | dóru | longing, yearning | dor | confirmed |
| Romani | drag | love, dear | drag | confirmed |
| Romani | drágoste | love affair | dragoste | confirmed |
| Romani | dumbráva | wood, forest | dumbravă | confirmed |
| Romani | fágu | beech | fag | confirmed |
| Romani | feri | only (adverb) |  | confirmed |
| Romani | giude | judge, head of the community | giude | confirmed |
| Romani | hórba | word | vorbă | confirmed |
| Romani | inke | still (adverb) | încă | confirmed |
| Romani | ke | that, because (complementiser) | că | confirmed |
| Romani | laie | band of nomadic Roma | laie | confirmed |
| Romani | lúme | world | lume | confirmed |
| Romani | maj | more (comparative marker) | mai | confirmed |
| Romani | mereu | always | mereu | confirmed |
| Romani | milija | thousand |  | confirmed |
| Romani | sălaș | lodging, encampment | sălaș | confirmed |
| Romani | trájsta | bag, haversack | traistă | confirmed |
| Romani | trebui | to be necessary, must (impersonal modal) | trebui | confirmed |
| Romani | vare- | some- (indefinite marker, e.g. vare-kon) |  | confirmed |
| Romani | vatră | hearth, camp | vatră | confirmed |
| Romani | vătaf | overseer, steward | vătaf | confirmed |
| Romani | șatră | tent camp of Roma | șatră | confirmed |
| Romani | kam | perhaps (epistemic adverb) | cam | disputed |
| Romani | musaj | must (modal) | musai | disputed |
| Russian | герлыга | shepherd's crook with hooked end | cârlig | confirmed |
| Russian | мамалыга | thick maize porridge | mămăligă | confirmed |
| Russian | урда | goat or sheep whey cheese | urdă | confirmed |
| Russian | царина | ploughland, pasture, pen | țarină | confirmed |
| Russian | брынза | sheep's-milk cheese | brânză | through another language |
| Russian | гирло | river mouth; channel | gârlă | disputed |
| Russian | кошара | sheep pen | cășare | disputed |
| Russian | кукуруза | maize | cucuruz | disputed |
| Russian | мерлуха | lambskin | mielușă | disputed |
| Russian | плацинда | flat or layered sweet pie | plăcintă | disputed |
| Russian | цап | he-goat | țap | disputed |
| Russian | ватага | crowd, gang, flock |  | not counted: the dictionary gives another origin |
| Russian | гайдук | retainer, Hungarian foot soldier |  | not counted: the dictionary gives another origin |
| Russian | тайстра | large sack |  | not counted: the dictionary gives another origin |
| Russian | чабан | shepherd |  | not counted: the dictionary gives another origin |
| Russian | чума | plague |  | not counted: the dictionary gives another origin |
| Serbian and Croatian | biserka | church (in a masons' argot) | biserică | confirmed |
| Serbian and Croatian | bojar | nobleman, boyar (17th-18th c. dictionaries and poets) | boier | confirmed |
| Serbian and Croatian | frula | shepherd's flute | fluier | confirmed |
| Serbian and Croatian | karne | meat (in a potters' argot, Priština) | carne | confirmed |
| Serbian and Croatian | kasarina | house (in an argot of Priština) | casă | confirmed |
| Serbian and Croatian | kustura | large clasp knife with a bone handle | custură | confirmed |
| Serbian and Croatian | mamaljuga | cornmeal porridge | mămăligă | confirmed |
| Serbian and Croatian | obnjalo | foot-wrap (Timok-Lužnik dialect) | obială | confirmed |
| Serbian and Croatian | rinjkaš | badly castrated horse or ox | rincaciu | confirmed |
| Serbian and Croatian | fičor | young man (Šar planina) | fecior | Aromanian / “Vlach” |
| Serbian and Croatian | bač | head of a sheepfold; sheepfold | baciu | disputed |
| Serbian and Croatian | burdelj | hut, dugout | bordei | disputed |
| Serbian and Croatian | gagrica | grain weevil (also an insult for a miser) | gărgăriță | disputed |
| Serbian and Croatian | guša | throat, crop, double chin | gușă | disputed |
| Serbian and Croatian | katun | nomadic shepherds' summer settlement | cătun | disputed |
| Serbian and Croatian | koftor | tin oven (Kosovo) | cuptor | disputed |
| Serbian and Croatian | kopile | illegitimate child | copil | disputed |
| Serbian and Croatian | laja | name for a black ewe or goat | laiu | disputed |
| Serbian and Croatian | rakanjel | green tree frog (Zaječar) | răcănel | disputed |
| Serbian and Croatian | struga | small pen where ewes are milked | strungă | disputed |
| Serbian and Croatian | urda | whey cheese | urdă | disputed |
| Serbian and Croatian | čutura | flask | ciutură | not counted: the dictionary gives another origin |
| Serbian and Croatian | sigurno | sure, safe | sigur | not counted: the dictionary gives another origin |
| Serbian and Croatian | talpa | sole of a shoe; timber beam | talpă | not counted: the dictionary gives another origin |
| Serbian and Croatian | vatra | fire, hearth | vatră | not counted: no dictionary of the language read, or no etymology given |
| Slovak | bryndza | soft sheep's-milk cheese | brânză | confirmed |
| Slovak | cigája | sheep breed with fine wool (tsigai) | țigaie | confirmed |
| Slovak | demikát | soup of sheep cheese and cut bread | dumicat | confirmed |
| Slovak | geleta | wooden milk vessel | găleată | confirmed |
| Slovak | grapa | barren stony field, usually on a slope | groapă | confirmed |
| Slovak | grúň | unwooded mountain slope | grui | confirmed |
| Slovak | meridzať | to ruminate (of livestock); rest in the shade | meriza | confirmed |
| Slovak | merinda | provisions for a journey | merinde | confirmed |
| Slovak | plekať | to suckle a child (obsolete) | pleca | confirmed |
| Slovak | putera | vessel for milk and cheese used at the sheepfold | putină | confirmed |
| Slovak | redikať sa | to move the flock down from the summer pasture; to trudge | ridica | confirmed |
| Slovak | strunga | fenced milking pen in a sheepfold | strungă | confirmed |
| Slovak | žinčica | boiled whey of sheep's milk | jintiță | confirmed |
| Slovak | kľag | calf stomach used as rennet | chiag | Aromanian / “Vlach” |
| Slovak | čutora | flat flask; pipe stem | ciutură | through another language |
| Slovak | fičúr | dandy; showily dressed man (pejorative) | fecior | through another language |
| Slovak | palacinka | pancake | plăcintă | through another language |
| Slovak | bača | head shepherd, master of a sheepfold | baci | disputed |
| Slovak | cap | billy goat | țap | disputed |
| Slovak | cárok | pen for livestock and poultry | țarc | disputed |
| Slovak | fujara | long folk shepherd flute | fluier | disputed |
| Slovak | magura | hill, mountain, hilly land (dialect) | măgură | disputed |
| Slovak | sihlina | waterlogged ground; young conifer stand | sihlă | disputed |
| Slovak | striga | witch, hag | strigă | disputed |
| Slovak | vari | perhaps, maybe (particle) | oare | disputed |
| Slovak | vatra | large open-air fire | vatră | disputed |
| Slovak | koliba | simple wooden shepherd hut | colibă | not counted: the dictionary gives another origin |
| Slovak | košiar | sheep pen |  | not counted: the dictionary gives another origin |
| Slovak | kŕdeľ | flock, herd | cârd | not counted: the dictionary gives another origin |
| Slovak | kukurica | maize | cucuruz | not counted: the dictionary gives another origin |
| Slovak | príslop | shallow high mountain saddle |  | not counted: no dictionary of the language read, or no etymology given |
| Slovak | prť | narrow mountain path trodden by animals | pârtie | not counted: the dictionary gives another origin |
| Slovak | riava | mountain torrent (poetic) |  | not counted: the dictionary gives another origin |
| Slovak | salaš | sheepfold with hut; folk restaurant |  | not counted: the dictionary gives another origin |
| Slovak | šutý | hornless (of sheep, goats) | șut | not counted: no dictionary of the language read, or no etymology given |
| Slovak | valach | shepherd (originally: Vlach) |  | not counted: the dictionary gives another origin |
| Albanian | rrojbë | safflower, madder | roibă | confirmed |
| Albanian | tërsirë | rope made of genista | tarsină | confirmed |
| Albanian | ftujë | one-year-old she-goat | *vitulea | Aromanian / “Vlach” |
| Albanian | kodër | hill | *codrum | Aromanian / “Vlach” |
| Albanian | sak | net, sack | sac | through another language |
| Albanian | flojere | flute | fluier | disputed |
| Albanian | gushë | throat | gușă | disputed |
| Albanian | kësulë | cap, bonnet | căciulă | disputed |
| Albanian | trajstë | sack, knapsack | traistă | disputed |
| Turkish | boyar | boyar, nobleman | boier | not counted: the dictionary gives another origin |
| Turkish | funda | heather |  | not counted: the dictionary gives another origin |
| Turkish | kaşkaval | kashkaval cheese | cașcaval | not counted: the dictionary gives another origin |
| Turkish | kopil | street urchin | copil | not counted: the dictionary gives another origin |
| Turkish | mamaliga | cornmeal porridge | mămăligă | not counted: the dictionary gives another origin |
| Turkish | masa | table | masă | not counted: the dictionary gives another origin |
| Turkish | pelin | wormwood | pelin | not counted: the dictionary gives another origin |
| Turkish | voyvoda | voivode (title of the rulers of Wallachia and Moldavia) | voievod | not counted: the dictionary gives another origin |
| Ukrainian | афина | bilberries | afină | confirmed |
| Ukrainian | бабана | old ewe (past breeding) | babană | confirmed |
| Ukrainian | бадя | sister's husband; (child speech) elder brother; form of address to an older man | bade | confirmed |
| Ukrainian | балан | white ox; white horse or dog; fair-haired lad | bălan | confirmed |
| Ukrainian | балець | bridal veil or kerchief; wedding loaf | balț | confirmed |
| Ukrainian | балеґа | cattle dung | baligă | confirmed |
| Ukrainian | балмуш | Carpathian dish of maize flour with sheep cheese or eggs | balmoș | confirmed |
| Ukrainian | барза | black sheep with a white breast; black goat | bârză | confirmed |
| Ukrainian | баталев | churn; milk vessel | bătălău | confirmed |
| Ukrainian | блинда | severe skin rash, hives | blândă | confirmed |
| Ukrainian | бовгар | cowherd, herdsman of large cattle | boar | confirmed |
| Ukrainian | больфа | sore, blister, swelling | bolfă | confirmed |
| Ukrainian | ботей | flock of sheep; young Hutsul shepherd | botei | confirmed |
| Ukrainian | брацар | silver bracelet; shirt cuff | brățară | confirmed |
| Ukrainian | бринза | sheep's-milk cheese | brânză | confirmed |
| Ukrainian | броскай | (male) frog | broscoi | confirmed |
| Ukrainian | брустура | burdock (Arctium) | brusture | confirmed |
| Ukrainian | будз | fresh or dried sheep cheese; soured milk for brynza | bulț | confirmed |
| Ukrainian | букат | piece, slice | bucată | confirmed |
| Ukrainian | букулай | name for a ram | bucălaie | confirmed |
| Ukrainian | буна | grandmother | bună | confirmed |
| Ukrainian | бурдей | dugout, smoky hut; tent of Roma | bordei | confirmed |
| Ukrainian | бусуйок | basil | busuioc | confirmed |
| Ukrainian | бутук | tree trunk for sawing; gnarled block for chopping wood | butuc | confirmed |
| Ukrainian | бір | tax | bir | confirmed |
| Ukrainian | вурда | pressed hemp or poppy seed as pie filling; whey cheese | urdă | confirmed |
| Ukrainian | гавра | lair of a wild animal; maw | gaură | confirmed |
| Ukrainian | гард | fish weir, barrier across a river | gard | confirmed |
| Ukrainian | гелета | wooden vessel, barrel; milk pail; old measure of milk or grain | găleată | confirmed |
| Ukrainian | гирло | river mouth; river arm | gârlă | confirmed |
| Ukrainian | грапа | harrow | grapă | confirmed |
| Ukrainian | гривий | grey-yellow, dappled grey (colour of a horse) | griv | confirmed |
| Ukrainian | гринда | small shelf; plough beam; barrier | grindă | confirmed |
| Ukrainian | гропа | mountain pasture (polonyna) | groapă | confirmed |
| Ukrainian | грун | hillock, knoll | grui | confirmed |
| Ukrainian | дармой | sieve with large holes | dârmoi | confirmed |
| Ukrainian | дзер | whey | zer | confirmed |
| Ukrainian | дзяма | broth, meat stock; fruit juice | zeamă | confirmed |
| Ukrainian | дзіґерай | head cold, catarrh | jigărai | confirmed |
| Ukrainian | жентиця | whey from sheep's milk | jintiță | confirmed |
| Ukrainian | калаверці | boots with turned-down tops | calavră | confirmed |
| Ukrainian | каманак | Hutsul cap, beret | comănac | confirmed |
| Ukrainian | капестра | halter, bridle | căpăstru | confirmed |
| Ukrainian | каруца | cart, wagon | căruță | confirmed |
| Ukrainian | каця | hooked stick for catching sheep | cață | confirmed |
| Ukrainian | кептар | sleeveless fur jerkin | cheptar | confirmed |
| Ukrainian | кирд | flock of sheep | cârd | confirmed |
| Ukrainian | клака | communal work by neighbours or kin, volunteer labour | clacă | confirmed |
| Ukrainian | комарник | shepherd's shelter; partitioned dairy store | comarnic | confirmed |
| Ukrainian | кондури | kind of boots (Pokuttia) | condur | confirmed |
| Ukrainian | коркобець | rainbow | curcubeu | confirmed |
| Ukrainian | корнута | horned sheep | cornută | confirmed |
| Ukrainian | костура | slaughtering knife | custură | confirmed |
| Ukrainian | кукуц | small loaf given to children at New Year; pastry | cocuț | confirmed |
| Ukrainian | кумнат | brother-in-law | cumnat | confirmed |
| Ukrainian | куркан | turkey cock | curcan | confirmed |
| Ukrainian | курмей | rope | curmei | confirmed |
| Ukrainian | лавути | lute; stringed instrument; fiddle | lăută | confirmed |
| Ukrainian | латура | dog food; thin soup or porridge | lături | confirmed |
| Ukrainian | левурда | ramsons, bear's garlic (Allium ursinum) | leurdă | confirmed |
| Ukrainian | леліка | aunt (also address to an older woman) | lelică | confirmed |
| Ukrainian | лок | place; plot of land | loc | confirmed |
| Ukrainian | магала | outlying quarter; part of a village | mahala | confirmed |
| Ukrainian | магура | high mountain, hill | măgură | confirmed |
| Ukrainian | май | particle that forms the comparative | mai | confirmed |
| Ukrainian | малай | bread of maize, peas or millet; white clay disc; millet | mălai | confirmed |
| Ukrainian | мамалиґа | thick maize porridge | mămăligă | confirmed |
| Ukrainian | марфа | goods for barter; factory-made cloth; tree floated by Hutsuls | marfă | confirmed |
| Ukrainian | мензеря | milch ewe | mânzare | confirmed |
| Ukrainian | мерендати | to ruminate, chew the cud | meriza | confirmed |
| Ukrainian | мериндя | bag of food; provisions for the road; udder | merinde | confirmed |
| Ukrainian | мицька | wool of young lambs; turf | miță | confirmed |
| Ukrainian | непіт | nephew; grandson | nepot | confirmed |
| Ukrainian | одая | cattle enclosure outside the village; farmstead; forest clearing | odaie | confirmed |
| Ukrainian | партал | remains of a sheep eaten by wolves | partal | confirmed |
| Ukrainian | пафталі | women's dress item (buckles) | paftale | confirmed |
| Ukrainian | пацити | to mock, rage; to suffer hardships | păți | confirmed |
| Ukrainian | плай | mountain path; riding road; level field | plai | confirmed |
| Ukrainian | плачинда | kind of pie | plăcintă | confirmed |
| Ukrainian | плекати | to cherish, nurture, foster | pleca | confirmed |
| Ukrainian | позна | harm, damage | poznă | confirmed |
| Ukrainian | помана | memorial loaf; memorial gift | pomană | confirmed |
| Ukrainian | порняла | pasture for milch sheep; grazing after the evening milking | porneală | confirmed |
| Ukrainian | путера | wooden vessel for making sheep cheese | putină | confirmed |
| Ukrainian | путеря | strength, power | putere | confirmed |
| Ukrainian | риндзя | calf's stomach; milk starter | rânză | confirmed |
| Ukrainian | рипа | pothole; steep bank, cliff | râpă | confirmed |
| Ukrainian | румегати | to chew the cud | rumega | confirmed |
| Ukrainian | салба | part of women's costume (necklace of coins) | salbă | confirmed |
| Ukrainian | сапа | hoe | sapă | confirmed |
| Ukrainian | сарака | poor wretch | sărac | confirmed |
| Ukrainian | сегельба | plot cleared by felling and burning for a field | seghelbă | confirmed |
| Ukrainian | сембреля | wages of farmhands; reward for shepherds | simbrie | confirmed |
| Ukrainian | сокотити | to keep, guard, preserve | socoti | confirmed |
| Ukrainian | стина | summer sheepfold in the field | stână | confirmed |
| Ukrainian | турма | flock, herd, crowd | turmă | confirmed |
| Ukrainian | тяр | indeed, really | chiar | confirmed |
| Ukrainian | флояра | shepherd's flute | fluier | confirmed |
| Ukrainian | фота | striped woollen cloth worn by Galician women as a skirt | fotă | confirmed |
| Ukrainian | фрембія | cord on an apron | frâmbie | confirmed |
| Ukrainian | фрика | violence, coercion | frică | confirmed |
| Ukrainian | фудулія | arrogance, haughtiness | fudulie | confirmed |
| Ukrainian | фурка | three-pronged pitchfork | furcă | confirmed |
| Ukrainian | фін | godchild; bridegroom in relation to his wedding sponsors | fin | confirmed |
| Ukrainian | цара | crowd; foreign land | țară | confirmed |
| Ukrainian | царина | village gate; field; pasture | țarină | confirmed |
| Ukrainian | царок | pen for poultry or calves | țarc | confirmed |
| Ukrainian | ґалиця | poultry | găliță | confirmed |
| Ukrainian | ґелка | swelling, lump | gâlcă | confirmed |
| Ukrainian | ґердан | bead necklace or headband | gherdan | confirmed |
| Ukrainian | ґерґелиця | grain weevil (Calandra granaria) | gărgăriță | confirmed |
| Ukrainian | ґирлиґа | long staff with a hooked end | cârlig | confirmed |
| Ukrainian | ґляґ | part of a ruminant's stomach used to curdle milk | chiag | confirmed |
| Ukrainian | ґорґан | mountain peak, ridge | gorgan | confirmed |
| Ukrainian | ґоґа | black adder | gogă | confirmed |
| Ukrainian | ґоґоман | fool | gogoman | confirmed |
| Ukrainian | ґринджоли | simple low sledges | gringioară | confirmed |
| Ukrainian | ґрос | flock of pregnant ewes | gros | confirmed |
| Ukrainian | ґурґуля | lump, swelling | gurgui | confirmed |
| Ukrainian | ґутурай | head cold, catarrh | guturai | confirmed |
| Ukrainian | байор | braid, cord, ribbon (krajka) | baier | through another language |
| Ukrainian | бербениця | small tub for dairy products, barrel | bărbânță | disputed |
| Ukrainian | бокор | raft | bocor | disputed |
| Ukrainian | ватра | fire, hearth; Hutsul dwelling | vatră | disputed |
| Ukrainian | гайда | flute; bagpipe | gaidă | disputed |
| Ukrainian | кемпа | island in a river | câmp | disputed |
| Ukrainian | кода | belt, ribbon | coadă | disputed |
| Ukrainian | колиба | shepherd's hut; Hutsul loggers' winter log dwelling | colibă | disputed |
| Ukrainian | кошара | sheep pen | coșar | disputed |
| Ukrainian | кукурудза | maize | cucuruz | disputed |
| Ukrainian | мерлушка | fur of a dead sheep |  | disputed |
| Ukrainian | окіл | enclosure where sheep stand before milking | ocol | disputed |
| Ukrainian | папуша | bundle of tobacco leaves; pack | păpușă | disputed |
| Ukrainian | сака | water barrel |  | disputed |
| Ukrainian | тайстра | bag, satchel | traistă | disputed |
| Ukrainian | трембіта | Hutsul long wooden horn | trâmbiță | disputed |
| Ukrainian | фума | pride, haughtiness | fum | disputed |
| Ukrainian | філіжанка | cup | filigean | disputed |
| Ukrainian | цап | he-goat | țap | disputed |
| Ukrainian | бача | senior shepherd |  | not counted: the dictionary gives another origin |
| Ukrainian | бесаги | saddlebags |  | not counted: the dictionary gives another origin |
| Ukrainian | бир | exclamation to drive sheep |  | not counted: the dictionary gives another origin |
| Ukrainian | бирзуватися | to rage, get angry |  | not counted: no dictionary of the language read, or no etymology given |
| Ukrainian | бурдюк | goatskin or calfskin bag for water or wine |  | not counted: the dictionary gives another origin |
| Ukrainian | ватага | crowd, band, herd |  | not counted: the dictionary gives another origin |
| Ukrainian | гайдук | Balkan outlaw; servant |  | not counted: the dictionary gives another origin |
| Ukrainian | гарбуз | pumpkin; watermelon |  | not counted: the dictionary gives another origin |
| Ukrainian | катун | soldier |  | not counted: the dictionary gives another origin |
| Ukrainian | куліш | thick millet soup |  | not counted: no dictionary of the language read, or no etymology given |
| Ukrainian | легінь | young man, lad (Hutsul) |  | not counted: the dictionary gives another origin |
| Ukrainian | мачка | cat |  | not counted: the dictionary gives another origin |
| Ukrainian | мольфар | sorcerer (Hutsul) |  | not counted: no dictionary of the language read, or no etymology given |
| Ukrainian | мурга | stubborn or ungrateful person |  | not counted: the dictionary gives another origin |
| Ukrainian | най | let (particle) |  | not counted: the dictionary gives another origin |
| Ukrainian | пазити | to watch, look after |  | not counted: the dictionary gives another origin |
| Ukrainian | парть | share, portion; gift; talent |  | not counted: the dictionary gives another origin |
| Ukrainian | пастрама | salted or smoked mutton |  | not counted: the dictionary gives another origin |
| Ukrainian | понористий | dug up, uneven (of a road) |  | not counted: the dictionary gives another origin |
| Ukrainian | притаманний | characteristic, inherent |  | not counted: the dictionary gives another origin |
| Ukrainian | путня | barrel; vessel for water |  | not counted: the dictionary gives another origin |
| Ukrainian | руменувати | to chew the cud |  | not counted: the dictionary gives another origin |
| Ukrainian | сердак | cloth outer garment |  | not counted: the dictionary gives another origin |
| Ukrainian | тюфтельки | meatball |  | not counted: no dictionary of the language read, or no etymology given |
| Ukrainian | чабан | shepherd |  | not counted: the dictionary gives another origin |
| Ukrainian | чорба | something vague: large, heavy, bad |  | not counted: the dictionary gives another origin |
| Ukrainian | чума | plague |  | not counted: the dictionary gives another origin |
| Ukrainian | ґазда | master, farmer |  | not counted: the dictionary gives another origin |
| Yiddish | ange | a klezmer dance genre | hangu | confirmed |
| Yiddish | arici | hedgehog | arici | confirmed |
| Yiddish | berbec | ram | berbec | confirmed |
| Yiddish | bordei | dug-out hut | bordei | confirmed |
| Yiddish | broske | frog | broască | confirmed |
| Yiddish | caisă | apricot | caisă | confirmed |
| Yiddish | chändl | inn | han | confirmed |
| Yiddish | clește | pincers | clește | confirmed |
| Yiddish | čoră | crow | cioară | confirmed |
| Yiddish | crai | libertine | crai | confirmed |
| Yiddish | drēm | dram (small weight) | dram | confirmed |
| Yiddish | dudă | mulberry | dudă | confirmed |
| Yiddish | dulap | cupboard | dulap | confirmed |
| Yiddish | gherlă | stream, channel | gârlă | confirmed |
| Yiddish | hora | a slow klezmer dance genre in triple metre | horă | confirmed |
| Yiddish | kánter | scales | cântar | confirmed |
| Yiddish | koje | rind, peel | coajă | confirmed |
| Yiddish | labă | paw | labă | confirmed |
| Yiddish | londre | a klezmer dance genre | oleandre | confirmed |
| Yiddish | magazie | storehouse, shop | magazie | confirmed |
| Yiddish | maimuță | monkey | maimuță | confirmed |
| Yiddish | moșie | estate, heritage | moșie | confirmed |
| Yiddish | măgar | donkey | măgar | confirmed |
| Yiddish | nepot | nephew, grandson | nepot | confirmed |
| Yiddish | ókă | oka (unit of weight) | oca | confirmed |
| Yiddish | pardé | curtain | perdea | confirmed |
| Yiddish | pepene | melon | pepene | confirmed |
| Yiddish | potkovă | horseshoe | potcoavă | confirmed |
| Yiddish | primăvară | spring (season) | primăvară | confirmed |
| Yiddish | păpușoi | maize | păpușoi | confirmed |
| Yiddish | skap-en | to escape | scăpa | confirmed |
| Yiddish | strugure | grape | strugure | confirmed |
| Yiddish | sârba | a klezmer dance genre | sârbă | confirmed |
| Yiddish | sămânță | seed | sămânță | confirmed |
| Yiddish | talpă | sole (of foot or shoe) | talpă | confirmed |
| Yiddish | tavan | ceiling | tavan | confirmed |
| Yiddish | tavă | tray | tavă | confirmed |
| Yiddish | tomnă | autumn | toamnă | confirmed |
| Yiddish | vatră | hearth | vatră | confirmed |
| Yiddish | zarzără | apricot (wild apricot) | zarzără | confirmed |
| Yiddish | zhok | a klezmer dance genre of the hora type | joc | confirmed |
| Yiddish | șanț | ditch | șanț | confirmed |
| Yiddish | țăren-er | peasant | țăran | confirmed |
| Yiddish | bulgarish | Bulgarian-style dance (klezmer genre) | bulgărească | disputed |
| Yiddish | doyne | doina (klezmer / hasidic free-rhythm genre) | doină | not counted: no dictionary of the language read, or no etymology given |
| Yiddish | mamelige | maize porridge (mămăligă) | mămăligă | not counted: no dictionary of the language read, or no etymology given |
| Yiddish | pastrame | pastrami (seasoned cured meat) | pastramă | not counted: no dictionary of the language read, or no etymology given |

## Sources

1. [Új magyar etimológiai szótár (ÚESz), online edition in progress, ed. Gerstner Károly, Budapest, 2011–2025](https://uesz.nytud.hu/)
2. Zaicz Gábor (ed.), Etimológiai szótár. Magyar szavak és toldalékok eredete, Tinta, Budapest, 2006
3. [Benő Attila, A kölcsönszó jelentésvilága, Erdélyi Múzeum-Egyesület, Cluj, 2004](https://www.eme.ro/publication-hu/etf/konyvekPDF/EME_ETF_246.pdf)
4. [Zsemlyei Borbála, “Crossing Language Borders”, Acta Universitatis Sapientiae, Philologica 9/3 (2017), pp. 5–13](https://www.diacronia.ro/indexing/details/A27625/pdf)
5. [Borbély Anna, “Bakos Ferenc, a magyar szókészlet román elemeinek tudósa”, Barátság 2021/3, pp. 10411–10414](https://epa.oszk.hu/01200/01259/00112/pdf/EPA01259_baratsag_2021_03_10411-10414.pdf)
6. [Етимологічний словник української мови (ЕСУМ), 7 vols, Kyiv, 1982–2012, read on goroh.pp.ua](https://goroh.pp.ua/Етимологія)
7. [Emil Vrabie, “Influența limbii române asupra limbii ucrainene”, Romanoslavica XIV (1967), pp. 109–199](https://macedonia.kroraina.com/rs/rs14_7.pdf)
8. [Ion Robciuc, “Interferențe istorice și lingvistice româno-ucrainene”, Curierul ucrainean no. 265–266, June 2014](http://web.archive.org/web/20250505092225/https://uur.ro/images/ziare/curierul/2014/curier%20265_266.pdf)
9. [Max Vasmer, Этимологический словарь русского языка, tr. O. N. Trubachev, Moscow, 1964–1973](https://lexicography.online/etymology/vasmer/)
10. [D. N. Ushakov (ed.), Толковый словарь русского языка, Moscow, 1935–1940](https://lexicography.online/explanatory/ushakov/)
11. [Wielki słownik języka polskiego PAN, Kraków, online](https://wsjp.pl/)
12. [Słownik języka polskiego PWN, etymology section, online](https://sjp.pwn.pl/)
13. [Aleksander Brückner, Słownik etymologiczny języka polskiego, Kraków, 1927](https://pl.wikisource.org/wiki/Słownik_etymologiczny_języka_polskiego)
14. [Józef Kąś, Maciej Rak, “Historia polskiego Spiszu utrwalona w słowniku gwarowym”, Rozprawy Komisji Językowej ŁTN 73 (2025)](https://journals.ltn.lodz.pl/Rozprawy-Komisji-Jezykowej/article/download/3270/2925/6188)
15. [Mariana Budu, Kamil Stachowski, “Język rumuński jako pośrednik pomiędzy tureckim a polskim”, Linguistica Copernicana 21 (2024), pp. 139–189](https://apcz.umk.pl/LinCop/article/download/51411/41879/180236)
16. [Piotr Oczko, “Traces of Vlach Migrations in the Toponymy of the Polish Podtatrze Region”, Res Historica 41 (2016)](https://journals.umcs.pl/rh/article/download/4160/3006)
17. Ľubor Králik, Stručný etymologický slovník slovenčiny, Veda, Bratislava, 2015
18. [Krátky slovník slovenského jazyka, 4th ed., Bratislava, 2003](https://slovnik.aktuality.sk/)
19. [Slovník spisovného jazyka českého (SSJČ), Prague, 1960–1971, online edition](https://ssjc.ujc.cas.cz/)
20. Jiří Rejzek, Český etymologický slovník, Leda, Voznice, 2001
21. [Teodora Alexandru, “Lexikální prvky rumunského původu ve Slovníku spisovného jazyka českého”, Naše řeč 57 (1974), no. 3, pp. 142–148](http://nase-rec.ujc.cas.cz/archiv.php?art=5773)
22. [Duden online](https://www.duden.de/)
23. [Digitales Wörterbuch der deutschen Sprache (DWDS), with Wolfgang Pfeifer's etymological dictionary](https://www.dwds.de/)
24. [Sigrid Haldenwang, study of Pomānǝ in the Transylvanian Saxon dialects, Germanistische Beiträge 48 (2022)](https://publikationen.ub.uni-frankfurt.de/opus4/files/70899/Haldewang.pdf)
25. [Български етимологичен речник (БЕР), Bulgarian Academy of Sciences, Sofia, vols 1 (1971) and 7 (2010)](https://archive.org/details/BER_pdf)
26. [Речник на българския език, read on rechnik.chitanka.info](https://rechnik.chitanka.info/)
27. [Theodor Capidan, “Raporturile lingvistice slavo-române. I. Influența română asupra limbei bulgare”, Dacoromania III (1923)](https://www.diacronia.ro/indexing/details/A14668/pdf)
28. [Petar Skok, Etimologijski rječnik hrvatskoga ili srpskoga jezika, Zagreb, 1971–1974](https://archive.org/details/EtimologijskiRjecnikHrvatskogaIliSrpskogaJezika)
29. [Hrvatski jezični portal](https://hjp.znanje.hr/)
30. [Λεξικό της κοινής νεοελληνικής (Triantafyllidis Institute), online](https://www.greek-language.gr/greekLang/modern_greek/tools/lexica/triantafyllides/)
31. [George Murnu, Rumänische Lehnwörter im Neugriechischen, Munich, 1902](https://archive.org/details/IA41552325_0139)
32. [Vladimir Orel, Albanian Etymological Dictionary, Brill, Leiden, 1998](https://archive.org/details/orel_20240531)
33. [Sevan Nişanyan, Nişanyan Sözlük. Çağdaş Türkçenin Etimolojisi, online](https://www.nisanyansozluk.com/)
34. [Türk Dil Kurumu, Güncel Türkçe Sözlük, online](https://sozluk.gov.tr/)
35. [Franz Miklosich, Über die Mundarten und die Wanderungen der Zigeuner Europas, V, Vienna, 1875 (glossary of Bukovina Romani)](https://archive.org/details/uberdiemundartenunddiewanderungenv5)
36. [Yaron Matras, “Defining the Limits of Grammatical Borrowing”](https://www.kratylos.org/~raphael/romani/downloads/2/Matras_Limits_of_borrowing.pdf)
37. [Viktor Elšík, Yaron Matras, “Modality in Romani”](https://www.kratylos.org/~raphael/romani/downloads/2/Elsik-Matras_Modals%20in%20Romani.pdf)
38. [Daniele Viktor Leggio, “The dialect of the Mitrovica Roma”](https://www.kratylos.org/~raphael/romani/downloads/2/Leggio_The%20dialect%20of%20the%20Mitrovica%20Roma.pdf)
39. [ROMLEX, the Romani lexical database of the University of Graz](http://romani.uni-graz.at/romlex/)
40. [Yaron Matras, “The classification of Romani dialects: a geographic-historical perspective” (2005), p. 9](https://www.kratylos.org/~raphael/romani/downloads/2/Matras_classification.pdf)
41. [Yaron Matras et al., The Romani Community in Gorton South, Manchester, 2009, p. 23](https://www.kratylos.org/~raphael/romani/downloads/2/report.pdf)
42. [Ian Hancock, “The Romani Language, History, and Standardization”, in Romani-Translation Handbook, 2024, p. 20](https://www.concordia.ca/content/dam/artsci/etudes-francais/Jean-Monnet-Chair/Docs/romani-translation-handbook-2023-jmdf.pdf)
43. [Lazăr Șăineanu, Istoria filologiei române, Bucharest, 1892, chapter “Elemente române în limbile străine”, pp. 281–286](https://archive.org/details/istoriafilologi00goog)
44. [Walter Zev Feldman, “Klezmer Tunes for the Christian Bride”, Revista de etnografie și folclor 1–2 (2020), pp. 5–35](https://klezmerinstitute.org/wp-content/uploads/2020/10/Feldman_Jewish-Tunes-for-the-Christian-Bride_REF_2-5-35.pdf)
45. [Lexicon of Klezmer Terminology, Jewish Music Research Centre, Hebrew University of Jerusalem](https://jewish-music.huji.ac.il/)
46. [Jewish English Lexicon, ed. Sarah Bunin Benor](https://jel.jewish-languages.org/)
47. [YIVO Encyclopedia of Jews in Eastern Europe](https://encyclopedia.yivo.org/)
48. [American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language, 5th ed., online](https://ahdictionary.com/)
49. [Random House Unabridged Dictionary, on Dictionary.com](https://www.dictionary.com/)
50. [Douglas Harper, Online Etymology Dictionary](https://www.etymonline.com/)
51. [Dave Wilton, “pastrami”, Wordorigins.org, 2021](https://www.wordorigins.org/big-list-entries/pastrami)
52. [Vocabolario Treccani, online](https://www.treccani.it/vocabolario/)
53. [Larousse, online French dictionary](https://www.larousse.fr/)
54. [Milog, online Hebrew dictionary](https://milog.co.il/)
55. [Дигитален речник на македонскиот јазик](https://www.makedonski.info/)
56. [Wordnik](https://www.wordnik.com/)
57. [HoraWiki](https://www.horawiki.org/)
58. [Dicționarul explicativ al limbii române (DEX ’09) and Alexandru Ciorănescu, Dicționarul etimologic român (DER), on dexonline.ro](https://dexonline.ro/)
59. [Piotr Kłapyta, “Ewolucja osadnictwa na prawie wołoskim w Karpatach polskich”, Balcanica Posnaniensia XXXI (2024)](https://doi.org/10.14746/bp.2024.31.17)
60. [Călin Popeț, “Limba română și limbile slave. Influențe reciproce”, CICCRE V (2016), printed 2017](https://www.diacronia.ro/indexing/details/A26651/pdf)
61. [Gheorghe Bănică, “Éléments lexicaux roumains dans d’autres langues”, Language and Literature – European Landmarks of Identity 12 (2013), pp. 17–21](https://www.diacronia.ro/indexing/details/A5963/pdf)

Text and data: Marius Comper. Relief: NOAA ETOPO1. Borders and rivers: Natural Earth. The data may be reused with credit.