# Vikings reached Seville and Constantinople. Did they reach your town?

*The Viking Age in Europe, 793–1066*

From Scandinavia they sailed to Dublin, went up the Seine, the Rhine and the Guadalquivir, and rowed down the Dnieper to Constantinople. I have mapped 120 places where the sources put them and marked how each one is known. Type your town to see how close the nearest one is.

Marius Comper · 20 September 2026

## What “Viking” means here

Nobody was born a Viking. The word names what some Scandinavians did: go abroad to raid, trade or settle. The people they met called them other things: Danes, Northmen and heathens in England and Francia, Majus in Arabic Spain, Rus and Varangians in the east.

This map follows Norwegians, Danes and Swedes abroad between 793 and 1066. It leaves out the Normans’ later conquests, and Greenland and North America, which have their own page. The Rus of the eastern rivers are included where the sources name Scandinavians among them; scholars still argue over how Scandinavian their armies were.

Every place carries one of three marks, the strongest kind of evidence that puts Scandinavians there. The mark says how we know, not how important the place was.

- **Found on the ground** — An object, a grave, a camp or an inscription of Scandinavians was dug up or is still standing at the place.
- **Written at the time** — A chronicle, letter or geographer from within about a century of the event says they came, and could have known.
- **Legend, or disputed** — Only a later saga or chronicle says so, or the place cannot be identified with confidence.

## The map, region by region

Scroll and the map follows. It zooms to each region, draws the routes the sources record and lights the place you are reading about. The dotted circles are 500 km apart, measured in a straight line from the Kattegat. Tap any dot for its record.

## Where they set out from

*Before the first raid*

The first dots on the map are markets and ships.

Ribe, on the west coast of Jutland, was laid out as a market about 705, roughly 80 years before the first recorded landing in England, and it sold glass, pottery and millstones brought from abroad. Birka in Sweden, Hedeby at the neck of Jutland and Kaupang in Norway belong to the same period.

The ships are the other half. A ship grave on Karmøy in Norway has been dated by tree rings to the summer of 779, fourteen years before Lindisfarne. In 2007 a copy of the warship Skuldelev 2, built in Dublin about 1042, sailed from Roskilde on 1 July and reached Dublin on 14 August by way of Norway, Orkney and Scotland. The museum estimates its average speed under sail at 6 to 8 knots.

### Birka (about 750–980; Found on the ground)

Birka was a trading town on an island in Lake Mälaren, run from a royal estate on the neighbouring island of Adelsö. UNESCO calls it the hub of a trading network set up by Scandinavians and one of the most complete Viking trading settlements; hill fort, town rampart, cemeteries and jetties are still visible.

Rimbert says Ansgar and his companion were robbed by pirates on the way to Birka and then “kindly received” by the Swedish king; a 1921 translator’s introduction calls the same pirates “Vikings”.

*The 750 start is UNESCO’s “about” date. Rimbert’s account of the journey gives no year; UNESCO dates Ansgar’s congregation there to 831.*

### Salme (about 750; Found on the ground)

Two clinker-built ships on the coast of Saaremaa were used as graves for 41 young men who had died violently. Salme II held 34 skeletons stacked four deep with 40 swords, and Salme I held 7. Salme I was found in 2008 and Salme II excavated in 2010–2011.

DNA from 34 of the Salme men shows that four of them were brothers buried side by side, and a third-degree relative of one of them was also identified.

*Isotopes point to the Mälaren region as the “most probable” homeland, which is not proof. The group may have been a diplomatic delegation with an elite escort, not necessarily a raid.*

### Oseberg and Gokstad (summer 834; Found on the ground)

An Oseberg mound beside the Oslofjord held a ship burial that tree-ring dating puts in summer 834, with the ship built around 820, so the ship was about 14 years old when buried. The Gokstad ship burial, in the same region, dates to 900–905 and the ship is 24 m long.

The ships in the Oseberg, Gokstad and Tune graves were all 10–15 years old at burial, “not old and redundant” in the words of Bonde and Stylegar.

*834 dates the burial chamber timbers; about 820 for the ship is an estimate from other timbers. A royal burial is interpretation.*

### Skuldelev ships (about 1060–1090; Found on the ground)

Five worn-out ships were filled with stones and sunk across the channel on the sailing route to Roskilde, and posts were driven in to extend the barrier. Skuldelev 1 was an ocean-going cargo ship from Sognefjord in western Norway, and Skuldelev 2 a warship about 30 m long. The five were dug out in 1962.

The largest ship in the barrier, Skuldelev 2, was built of oak from near Dublin around 1042 (tree-ring dating), so part of Denmark’s sea defence was an Irish-built warship.

*The first phase is dated “around 1060–70” and the second “after twenty years”, so about 1080–90. About 25% of Skuldelev 2 survives, so its length is a reconstruction.*

## Britain and Ireland

*787–1066*

This region has the most places on the map because its chronicles record winters, battles and payments year by year.

The Anglo-Saxon Chronicle enters three ships of Northmen under 787, the year a king's reeve was killed on the Dorset coast. Lindisfarne followed in 793. From 865 an army stayed: it took York in 866–867, wintered at Torksey and Repton, and by 878 had been beaten by Alfred at Edington.

The Chronicle also records payments to the Danes: 10,000 pounds in 991, 16,000 in 994, 24,000 in 1002, 30,000 in 1007, 48,000 in 1012 and 72,000 in 1018. Added together the six sums come to 200,000 pounds, not counting another 10,500 paid by London in 1018. The town of Dublin grew from a naval camp recorded in 841, beside an older Gaelic church site.

### Dorset coast: the first ships (787; Written at the time)

Three ships came ashore in Wessex in the reign of King Beorhtric. The king’s reeve rode out, took them for merchants, tried to take them to the royal town and was killed. The Anglo-Saxon Chronicle calls them the first ships of the Northmen; Æthelweard, writing in the 980s, calls them a fleet of Danes.

Æthelweard, writing about 200 years later, gives the dead man’s name as Beaduherd and says he was at Dorchester when the ships were reported.

*The Chronicle entry is under 787; many works give 789. Neither it nor Æthelweard names Portland, so “Portland 789” is a later identification. Portland raids appear separately under 837 and 982.*

### Lindisfarne (793; Written at the time)

Raiders plundered and killed at St Cuthbert’s monastery on Holy Island. Alcuin, then at Charlemagne’s court, wrote about it to the king of Northumbria and the bishop of Lindisfarne. It is the first attack on a great monastery that the sources record.

Alcuin wrote that nobody in Britain had thought such an attack from the sea was possible in the nearly 350 years the English had lived there.

*The Chronicle gives no number of ships or dead. The day is 8 January in one translation and 8 June in another. Ships had already come ashore in Dorset earlier.*

### Dublin (from 841; Found on the ground)

Dublin began as a naval camp at Duiblinn, from which, the Annals of Ulster say, Leinster and the Uí Néill were plundered. It grew into a town. Kilmainham and Islandbridge hold the largest cemetery of its type in western Europe outside Scandinavia, and in 1014 the Dublin foreigners fought Brian’s army at Clontarf.

Excavators of a group of Viking Age plough marks at Essex Street/Parliament Street think they show a single clearing event, the earliest dated archaeology linked to the camp so far.

*The Annals are the evidence for 841; the archaeology of the first camp is interpretive (“thought to have emerged”). Dublin already had a Gaelic name and a church site before 841.*

### York (866–954; Found on the ground)

Excavations at Coppergate in 1976–81 uncovered well-preserved houses and workshops of the 10th-century town. The army took York in 866–867, when both rival Northumbrian kings were killed, and the last Scandinavian king, “Eric the son of Harold”, was received in 952 and expelled in 954.

Three sources from three regions record the fall of York (English Chronicle, Irish Annals of Ulster, Welsh Annales Cambriae); the Chronicle never calls Eric “Bloodaxe”.

*The Coppergate remains are 10th-century, later than the conquest. Sources date the fall of York to 866 or 867, and Eric’s identity with the saga’s Bloodaxe is a modern identification.*

### Torksey (winter 872–873; Found on the ground)

Metal-detector finds and survey located a camp of about 55 hectares, with hack-silver, lead weights and 124 Arabic dirhams. The excavators estimate that several thousand people overwintered there, among them warriors, craftworkers and merchants. The Chronicle places the army’s winter quarters at Torksey in Lindsey.

Torksey has the largest concentration of Arabic dirhams found in Britain (124 pieces), mostly cut up as bullion.

*“Several thousand” is the excavators’ estimate from the size of the camp and the finds, not a count. The link to the Great Army rests on the coins’ dates and the Chronicle.*

### Repton (winter 873–874; Found on the ground)

Excavations by St Wystan’s church found a defensive ditch and burials with Scandinavian grave goods, among them a sword and a silver Thor’s hammer pendant. A charnel deposit held at least 264 people, mostly men aged 18–45.

The Chronicle says the army drove King Burhred of Mercia “over sea” from Repton; the excavators found the camp ditch using the church as a gateway.

*The 2018 radiocarbon dates fit a single late 9th-century deposit, but the charnel bones were disturbed in the 17th–19th centuries; identifying them all as Viking is an inference, supported by the dates.*

### Ridgeway Hill (10th or 11th century; Found on the ground)

Excavators found the bodies of roughly 50 decapitated men (47–52 individuals) in a re-used Roman quarry pit; heads were piled at the pit’s south edge. About 188 wounds were counted, mostly at the neck.

At least one man had filed grooves in his front teeth, a practice known in Scandinavia but not previously found in Britain; evidence of infection and physical impairment was frequent among them.

*Excavators suggest Portland 982, later Dorset attacks, the 1002 St Brice’s Day order or a Cnut-era reprisal; the men may even have been English mercenaries executed by Vikings. None can be shown.*

### Maldon (991; Written at the time)

After plundering Ipswich, the raiders killed Ealdorman Byrhtnoth at Maldon. The Chronicle says it was then decided to pay tribute to the Danes for the first time: 10,000 pounds, on the advice of Archbishop Sigeric.

The Chronicle records the sums that followed: 16,000 pounds (994), 24,000 (1002), 30,000 (1007), 48,000 (1012) and 72,000 (1018).

*The Chronicle gives no number for the raiding fleet in 991. The 10,000 pounds, like the later sums, is the chronicler’s figure.*

## Out into the Atlantic

*c. 800–930*

Iceland and the Faroes were not empty when the Norse arrived.

Barley grains from Sandoy in the Faroes are dated to the 4th–8th centuries, hundreds of years before the Norse. Ari the Learned writes that Irish Christians were in Iceland when the Norse came, and that they left books, bells and croziers.

Ari counts Iceland's settlement from the death of King Edmund in 870 and says the island was fully settled after sixty years; the Landnámabók dates Ingólfr's voyage to 874. In Reykjavík an excavation found a wall fragment older than the Landnám volcanic ash layer, and a 10th-century longhouse.

### Faroe Islands (Viking Age; Found on the ground)

A Norse farm at Kvívík on Streymoy was excavated in the 1940s by Sverri Dahl: a stone-and-turf longhouse with a long central hearth, a byre later enlarged with a barn, and small finds including a skin shoe. Tjørnuvík has the largest excavated Viking Age cemetery in the Faroes.

The lower parts of both houses at Kvívík have been eroded by the sea, because the islands are slowly sinking.

*The source gives only “Viking Age” for the farm and no radiocarbon dates. The Faroes were already visited or settled before the Norse.*

### Reykjavík (870 or 874, by tradition; Found on the ground)

A 2001 excavation in Aðalstræti found a 10th-century longhouse, now preserved in place in the Settlement Exhibition, and to its north a wall fragment older than the volcanic Landnám tephra, described as one of Iceland’s oldest remains. Ari the Learned and the Landnámabók name Ingólfr Arnarson as the first settler at Reykjavík.

The two founding texts disagree: Ari counts from King Edmund’s death (870), the Landnámabók says 874. The Landnám tephra has been dated in ice cores to 871±2 and, more recently, 877±1.

*Ingólfr is known only from texts written from about 1130 onward, and the excavators’ 871±2 for the tephra layer predates its revision to 877±1.*

### Þingvellir (930, by calculation; Legend or disputed)

Ari the Learned says the Althing was established on the advice of Úlfljótr and all the people of the land, in the place where it remains. The land became common property, and an earlier assembly had met at Kjalarnes.

Ari says Iceland was fully settled “after sixty years”, which he counts from King Edmund’s death in 870.

*Ari wrote about 200 years after the event. The often-quoted 930 is calculated from his 60 years after 870; his text does not print that year.*

## Up the rivers of Francia

*810–918*

Their ships went up the Seine, the Loire, the Garonne, the Rhine and the Meuse, and stayed for winters.

The Annals of St-Bertin record 120 ships on the Seine in 845 and a fleet that left after Charles the Bald paid 7,000 pounds by weight. The army wintered at Ghent in 879–880 and at Elsloo or Asselt on the Meuse in 881–882, burned Cologne, Bonn and Trier, and used the king's chapel at Aachen as a stable. At Paris in 885–886 the eyewitness Abbo names Sigfred as the leader, and the Northmen left without taking the city.

The story ends with a grant of land. A royal charter of 918 speaks of “the Northmen of the Seine, namely Rollo”, already holding land, and the country came to be called the land of the Northmen: Normandy.

### Ingelheim (826 and 839; Written at the time)

In June 826 Louis the Pious held an assembly at Ingelheim, where envoys of the sons of Godofrid, king of the Danes, sought peace. That year Harald, baptised at Mainz, was given a county in Frisia. In 839 Louis found that Rhos men who had come with Greek envoys belonged to the Swedes.

On his way home through Frisia Harald was given the county of Rustringen (“Hriustri”), where he could take refuge with his goods if necessary.

*The baptism took place at St Alban's in Mainz; Ingelheim is only where the assembly met. The annal calls him “Herioldus” and does not give the by-name Klak that historians use.*

### Dorestad (834–863; Written at the time)

Dorestad, the great Rhine trading town, was attacked again and again: plundered and partly burned in 834, taken by force in 857 and ravaged in January 863, when many Frisian merchants were killed. In 850 the emperor Lothar, who could not drive Rorik out, gave him Dorestad.

The Annals of Fulda say Rorik, a Northman, had first held Dorestad with his brother Harald as a benefice under Louis the Pious, and later took it back by force.

*The annals use “Danes”, “Northmen” and “pagans” interchangeably and never say where the raiders came from; no excavation report tying finds to Scandinavians has been found.*

### Rouen (841 and 861–862; Written at the time)

In 841 Danish pirates sailed up the Seine and ruined Rouen; other places along it were laid waste or spared after large payments. In 861–862 Weland came up the Seine with more than 200 ships, the annalist says, and in 862 came to Charles the Bald with his wife and sons and became a Christian.

Already in 841 the annalist records that monasteries and places along the Seine were either laid waste or left alone after large sums were paid.

*The account is one annalist's, written within a few years of 841. He names no abbey and places the attack only after the battle of Fontenoy on 25 June.*

### Nantes (summer 843; Written at the time)

In summer 843 pirates attacked Nantes, killed the bishop and many clergy and lay people, and plundered the city. Ermentarius of Noirmoutier puts the fleet at 67 ships. The raiders then made for lower Aquitaine.

They spent the winter on an island, bringing houses across from the mainland; the annal does not name the island.

*The day is disputed: 24 June in a Nantes chronicle, Holy Saturday in Regino, no day in the Annals of St-Bertin. The 67 ships are one monk's count.*

### Paris (845–887; Written at the time)

In March 845 a fleet of 120 ships, by the annalist's count, reached Paris and left after Charles the Bald paid it. In 885–886 a fleet of 700 ships under Sigfred, by Abbo's account, besieged the city without taking it; the Northmen dragged their ships overland past Paris and came back in 887 for payment.

The Annals of Xanten call Reginheri “chief of the wicked” and say more than 600 of them fell in Gaul, yet Charles still paid them thousands of pounds of gold and silver.

*The Annals of St-Bertin give 7,000 pounds without naming the metal or a leader; Reginheri appears only in Xanten, and linking him to Ragnar Lodbrok is a guess.*

### Aachen (winter 881–882; Written at the time)

In the winter of 881–882 the Northmen attacked the abbeys of Prüm, Inden, Stavelot and Malmedy and the palace of Aachen. The Annals of Vedast say the Danes burned the famous palace of Aachen and the monasteries.

The Annals of Fulda say the Northmen made a stable for their horses in the king's chapel at Aachen.

*The stable is attested in one contemporary source, the Annals of Fulda, which says “the king's chapel” without naming Charlemagne; the Annals of Vedast say only that the palace was burned.*

### Leuven (autumn 891; Written at the time)

In 891 the Northmen, having devastated Lothar's kingdom, settled in a fortified camp on the Dyle at a place called Lovonnium (Leuven). King Arnulf came upon them unexpectedly, had the Franks fight on foot and won: many Northmen were driven into the river and drowned, and their two kings Sigifrid and Gotafrid were killed.

Fulda says the Danes in that camp were the strongest of the Northmen, a people never before heard of as captured or beaten in a fortification.

*The annalist says the Northmen drowned “by hundreds and thousands”, which is rhetoric and gives no count. The battle is described by Fulda alone.*

### Saint-Clair-sur-Epte (traditionally 911; Written at the time)

Dudo, writing shortly after 1015, places a meeting of the king and Rollo at Saint-Clair, granting Rollo and his successors the land from the Epte to the sea. Flodoard says only that Northmen received maritime districts with Rouen. No treaty text survives; the earliest document naming Rollo is a charter of 918.

In Dudo, Rollo's envoy tells the king that the land offered is uncultivated, without cattle or people, so that Rollo could live on it only by plunder.

*The place, the terms and the setting come from Dudo, who wrote about a century later; Flodoard and the 918 charter give no place and no date for the grant.*

## Iberia and the Mediterranean

*844–1016*

Latin and Arabic chroniclers both record fleets off the coast of Spain.

In 844 a fleet sailed from Asturias past Lisbon and Cádiz and up the Guadalquivir. Ibn Idhari writes that it took Seville by force and held it for about seven days, other accounts say thirteen, before the emir's army beat it. In 858–861 a fleet took Algeciras and burned its great mosque, took Nekor in Morocco, raided the Balearic Islands, wintered in the Rhône delta and reached Valence.

The Annals of St-Bertin add Pisa in 860. The famous story that Hastein took Luni believing it was Rome comes from Dudo, who wrote about 150 years later.

### A Coruña (844; Written at the time)

According to the Chronicle of Alfonso III, King Ramiro I fought the raiders 'at the place called Farum Brecantium', killed many and burned their ships; the survivors put to sea and went south. The later Historia Silense (early 12th century) gives the number of ships burned as 60.

The Annals of St-Bertin (844) say that raiders who 'attacked Galicia' were destroyed partly by crossbowmen and partly by a storm.

*The ninth-century chronicle gives no ship count; the 60 comes from the later Historia Silense. That Farum Brecantium means the Tower of Hercules is the editor's identification.*

### Seville (October–November 844; Written at the time)

Ibn Idhari says the Majus (the Arabic word for Magians, non-Muslim pagans) took Seville by force and held it seven days, killing or enslaving its people. Cordoba's cavalry and provincial levies gathered at the Aljarafe, and after several fights the raiders were beaten; Ibn Idhari counts 42 days from arrival to departure.

According to Ibn al-Qutiyya, when gold and silver were offered for their Muslim prisoners, the Majus refused both and accepted only clothing and food.

*The Arabic accounts date from the 10th century or later and disagree: 7 or 13 days, about 80 ships, 16,000 men in Ibn al-Qutiyya (not to be taken literally).*

### Nekor (858; Written at the time)

Al-Bakri says the Majus took Nekor, on the Rif coast of Morocco, plundered it, held it eight days and carried off inhabitants; two princesses of the ruling family were captured and later ransomed by the Umayyad emir Muhammad. The Chronicle of Alfonso III lists 'Nacchor, a city of Mauritania' among their targets.

The town appears both in an Arabic geographer and in a Latin chronicle from Christian Asturias, two traditions with no evident link.

*Ibn al-Qutiyya dates the sack to 844 and says the prince was taken; Dozy shows it was 858 and two female relatives. The Arabic says Majus; 'Normands' is the translator's gloss.*

### Luni (undated, placed about 860; Legend or disputed)

Dudo of Saint-Quentin, writing about 150 years later, and William of Jumièges say Hastein sailed to conquer Rome, was driven by a storm to Luna (now Luni) and took the city by a feigned funeral; learning it was not Rome, he ravaged the district.

In Dudo, Hastein and his men boast that they have taken 'Rome, head of the world' and only afterwards discover the mistake.

*The feigned funeral is a folk-tale motif and the link to the Pisa annal is inference; the Annals of St-Bertin place a sack of Luna by Moors and Saracens in 849.*

### Pisa (860; Written at the time)

The Annals of St-Bertin, in the entry for 860, say that the Danes who had been on the Rhône went to Italy and took Pisa and other cities, plundering and devastating them. The other cities are not named.

This one line is the only contemporary evidence for Scandinavians in Italy; the better-known Luni story is Dudo's, about 150 years later, and does not mention Pisa.

*Only a Frankish annal written far from Italy says this; no Italian text of the period or excavation supports it. The same annals blame 'Moors and Saracens' for plundering Luni in 849.*

### Santiago de Compostela (from 968, over three years; Written at the time)

According to Sampiro, 100 Norse ships under King Gunderedus entered Galicia in the second year of Ramiro III, killed Bishop Sisnando of Compostela near the town and ravaged the whole province. In the third year, he says, Count Gonzalo Sánchez killed the raiders and their king and burned their ships.

The later Chronicon Iriense says Sisnando, in full armour, ran after the raiders to a place called Fornelos and fell in the middle of their ranks.

*Sisnando's death is dated 968 in one manuscript and 970 by Florez and Dozy, because he is named at a council in June 969. No text says Compostela was taken.*

## East by river: Ladoga to Kyiv

*c. 750–970*

The road east ran along rivers, with boats carried overland between them.

The oldest wooden buildings at Staraya Ladoga, on the Volkhov, are dated by tree rings to about 753 or earlier. From there the road ran south by Novgorod, Gnezdovo and Kyiv. Around 950 the emperor Constantine VII gave the names of the Dnieper rapids in two languages, Slavonic and Rus, and scholars read several of the Rus names as Old Norse. A Gotland runestone says of some men that “they came far and wide in Eifor”, the name of one of those rapids.

The Primary Chronicle, compiled about 1113, says Rurik came in 862. Its entries for the two years before are empty, and the tree rings at Ladoga are more than a century older, though they do not show when Scandinavians arrived.

### Staraya Ladoga (753 or earlier; Found on the ground)

Port at the southern end of Lake Ladoga where ships from the Baltic entered the Volkhov. Its earliest wooden buildings are dated by tree rings to 753 or earlier, and finds include a spruce spindle carrying a runic verse.

The earliest wooden buildings at Ladoga are at least 109 years older than 862, the year the Primary Chronicle gives for the calling of the princes.

*753 dates the first wooden buildings, not the arrival of Scandinavians. No chamber graves like those at Birka, Hedeby, Gnezdovo or Kyiv have been found, possibly through loss or a local peculiarity.*

### Novgorod (Rurikovo Gorodishche) (from the later 9th century; Found on the ground)

Rurikovo Gorodishche, a fortified settlement a few kilometres from medieval Novgorod, is treated by Duczko as one of the two original centres of the Rus, with Staraya Ladoga. Its Norse finds include neck-rings with Thor’s hammers. At Novgorod itself a runic bone was found in 1958, and three Swedish runestones name Holmgardr.

Rurikovo Gorodishche lies a few kilometres from where medieval Novgorod stood, which is why scholars link it with the place where the Chronicle says Rurik ‘located himself in Novgorod’.

*That the Chronicle’s ‘Novgorod’ of Rurik means this hillfort is a scholarly inference. The amulets dated about 1000 were read from a photograph and their signs are largely unreadable.*

### Kyiv (about 950–990; Found on the ground)

In the mid-10th century Constantine VII says boats from Novgorod, Smolensk, Teliutza, Chernigov and Vyshegrad ‘are collected together at the city of Kiev’, and lists the Rus and Slavonic names of the Dnieper rapids below it. Kyiv graves with Norse items date to about 950–990.

The Norse names of the Dnieper rapids and Kyiv’s Norse-type graves both date to the mid-10th century; Duczko finds nothing securely earlier, so the Chronicle’s 9th-century princes lack archaeological confirmation.

*Norse items in Kyiv are few compared with Gnezdovo, and the graves also show steppe and Slavic features, so the graves alone would not show Norse political leadership.*

### Dnieper rapids (mid-10th century; Written at the time)

Constantine VII lists seven rapids, each with a ‘Russian’ name and a Slavonic name. At the fourth, the great one, the Rus land, post watchers against the Pechenegs and carry the slaves in chains six miles past it by land while they drag or carry the boats.

A runestone at Pilgards on Gotland, dated to about 1000, says of some brothers ‘They came far and wide in Eifor’, the Old Norse name of the rapid Constantine writes Aeifor.

*The ‘Russian’ names are in Greek spelling and scholars read several as Old Norse, for example Ulvorsi as Holmfors. Aifor is disputed, and which rapid each name matches is uncertain.*

## The Black Sea and the mouth of the Danube

*c. 950–971*

Constantine VII describes the Rus passing the mouth of the Danube and coasting south past Constantia, probably today's Constanța.

After the Dnieper estuary, where a runestone on Berezan says Grani made a grave for Karl, his partner, the convoy came to the Selinas, generally identified with the Sulina branch of the Danube. Then follow the Konopas, a place scholars have not securely identified, Constantia, the river of Varna and Mesembria, where Constantine says the voyage ends.

No source consulted for this map places Scandinavians living or settled on land that is now Romanian; Constantine's text shows the Rus passing along its coast. In 971 the army of Svyatoslav was besieged at Dorostolon, today Silistra in Bulgaria, 99 km in a straight line from Bucharest. The site of Pereyaslavets, the town Svyatoslav preferred to Kyiv, is unknown, and Nufăru is one candidate.

### Constanța (Constantia) (mid-10th century; Written at the time)

Constantine VII’s account of the yearly Rus convoy names Constantia as a stopping place on the coast, in Bulgarian territory; Jenkins identifies it with Constanța, on the Dobrudja coast. The text says the Rus pass by.

From the Danube, Constantine writes, the Rus ‘proceed to the Konopas, and from the Konopas to Constantia, and from Constantia to the river of Varna’.

*The identification with Constanța is Jenkins’s. The text says the Rus pass by and gives no Scandinavian name for the place; nothing found at Constanța shows Scandinavians.*

### Sulina (Selinas) (mid-10th century; Written at the time)

In Constantine VII’s account of the yearly Rus voyage, the Rus ‘come to the Selinas, to the so-called branch of the Danube river’, while the Pechenegs keep pace with them along the shore until they are past it. The Selinas is generally identified as Sulina.

After the Selinas the Rus, in Constantine’s words, ‘fear nobody’: they are now in ‘the territory of Bulgaria’.

*The identification with Sulina is general but not proved. The Rus are shown following the coast past the Danube mouth and do not sail up the river.*

### Berezan (11th century; Found on the ground)

A limestone end-stone of a grave cist found on the island of Berezan in 1905 reads ‘Grani made this vault in memory of Karl/Kall, his partner’. It is the only runestone known from Eastern Europe.

The treaty of 944 forbade the Rus from wintering on this island on the way back from Constantinople, and Constantine says the convoy rested on it ‘two or three days’ to refit.

*The date is loose (‘Viking age’ in Rundata, 11th century for Duczko and Jenkins). ‘Felagi’ means partner or comrade, which leaves open whether Grani and Karl were merchants or retainers.*

### Silistra (Dorostolon) (April–July 971; Written at the time)

Leo the Deacon, a Byzantine writer of the late 10th century, describes the siege of the Rus at Dorostolon, now Silistra in Bulgaria. He names Ikmor, killed in the fighting, and Sphengelos, third in rank after Svyatoslav, and says the Rus burned their dead and drowned infants and cocks in the Danube.

Leo says Svyatoslav met the emperor on the Danube rowing like a common oarsman, in a plain white garment and a gold earring with two pearls and a red stone.

*Leo’s figures, 60,000 Rus and 38,000 killed, are contradicted by the Chronicle and unreliable. He calls the Rus ‘Scythians’. The identification of Sphengelos with Sveneld is a later scholarly proposal.*

## Constantinople

*839–1043*

Scandinavians carved their names inside Hagia Sophia.

In 839 envoys who called themselves Rhos arrived at the court of Louis the Pious, and the Annals of St-Bertin record that they proved to be Swedes. Photius describes a Rus attack on Constantinople in 860; the Varangian Guard traces to 988; Rus fleets came again in 941 and 1043.

Three runic graffiti survive in the galleries of Hagia Sophia, among them Arinbarðr's inscription. The Piraeus Lion in Venice carries runes that Rundata reads as naming Haursi and Ásmundr; the reading that names Harald is from 1854.

### Constantinople (838 to the 12th century; Found on the ground)

Rus reach Constantinople as a fleet in 860 and again in 941, and in 988 about six thousand Varangian soldiers arrive from Vladimir. Three runic graffiti survive in the galleries of Hagia Sophia, one reading ‘Arinbarðr carved these runes’.

Arinbarðr’s inscription was found in 2009 by two Russian scholars looking for Cyrillic graffiti; the same window sill also carries Greek and 12th- to 13th-century Cyrillic graffiti.

*Only Arinbarðr’s inscription is fully readable, dated to the second half of the 11th or the 12th century. Nothing in the inscriptions shows the carvers were Varangian Guardsmen; that is an inference.*

### Piraeus (Viking age, perhaps the later 11th century; Found on the ground)

A marble lion at Piraeus, the port of Athens, carries runic bands on its shoulders and flanks. In Rundata’s reading, men cut runes in this harbour in memory of Haursi, and Swedes ‘arranged this on the lion’.

The lion was taken to Venice in 1687 by the naval commander Francesco Morosini, so runes carved in Greece are now read in Italy.

*The runes are badly weathered and readings differ widely. Older readings naming Harold Hafi, Hakon and ‘Romania and Armenia’ (Rafn 1854, Brate 1914) are not the current Rundata reading.*

## The Volga and the Caspian

*913–1041*

The farthest places on the map are known from Arabic texts.

Ibn Fadlan met Rus traders on the Volga in 922 and described a chief's funeral, in which his ship was burned with him and a slave girl. Al-Masudi describes a Rus raid across the Caspian about 913 with 500 ships, by his count, and Miskawayh the taking of Barda'a in 943–944.

Ibn Khordadbeh writes that Rus merchants sometimes carry goods by camel from the Caspian to Baghdad, and calls the Rus a kind of Slavs. Swedish runestones such as Gripsholm say that Ingvar's men “died in Serkland”, a Norse name for lands in the Muslim world whose exact location is uncertain. The sources consulted report no Scandinavian grave, camp or inscription from Baghdad or the Caspian coast.

### Baghdad (846–886; Legend or disputed)

The geographer Ibn Khurradadhbih says the Rus sell beaver and black-fox skins and swords, and sometimes carry their goods by camel from Jurjan on the Caspian to Baghdad. There Slavic eunuchs interpret for them and they pass as Christians to pay the poll tax.

His book already mentioned Rus merchants in its first version of 846–847, which was revised in about 885–886.

*The text says ‘sometimes’ and gives no eyewitness. It classes the Rus as a kind of Slavs, which limits any reading of them as Scandinavians.*

### Abaskun (913; Written at the time)

Al-Masudi says the Rus came down the Volga into the Caspian, sent cavalry against Gilan, Daylam and Tabaristan, and attacked Abaskun, a town on the Gorgan coast, and the naphtha country. He gives the fleet as about five hundred ships with a hundred men each.

Al-Masudi says the peoples of these coasts had never been attacked by sea; their shores had seen only merchant ships and fishermen.

*The ship numbers are al-Masudi’s and unverifiable. He calls them Rus (Russes in the French translation), without saying Norse or Vikings.*

### Volga Bulgaria (921–922; Written at the time)

Ibn Fadlan, an envoy of the Caliph in Baghdad, saw the Rusiyyah arrive on a trading expedition and land at the river Atil. He describes tall fair men with tattoos and Frankish-type swords, and women with neck rings and brooches. He also describes a ship funeral.

He says their swords are ‘of the Frankish variety, with broad, ridged blades’.

*Montgomery argues that Ibn Fadlan’s Rusiyyah need not be Vikings or Russians and that the description mixes Varangian and Khazar traits. The manuscript and Yaqut’s longer quotation of it differ.*

### Barda’a (943–944; Written at the time)

Miskawayh says the Russians sailed the Caspian, went up the river Kur, defeated a local force and took Barda’a, taking its inhabitants captive. About 5,000 volunteers and a few hundred Daylamite troops are named as its defenders; the Russians later embarked and left.

The Russians proclaimed that there was no quarrel over religion and that they wanted only sovereignty.

*Miskawayh wrote after the event, citing named informants. He calls the invaders Russians and says they came from behind the Khazars; he does not call them Scandinavians. The defenders’ numbers are his.*

## How far did they go, and how do we know?

Draw a circle 2,000 km around the Kattegat and it holds Paris, Dublin, Kyiv and Reykjavík. Seville lies 2,515 km away, Constantinople 2,195 km and the Caspian coast about 3,849 km.

Below, every place outside Scandinavia is a dot at its distance from the Kattegat, in three rows by kind of evidence. The row for finds on the ground stops at 2,314 km. Beyond that lie 15 places, and each is known only from written sources, some of them legends.

- 3,849 km — Abaskun (912–914; Written at the time)
- 3,645 km — Baghdad (846–886; Legend or disputed)
- 3,329 km — Baku (912–914; Written at the time)
- 3,175 km — Barda’a (943–944; Written at the time)
- 2,713 km — Arzila (844; Legend or disputed)
- 2,678 km — Nekor (858–859; Written at the time)
- 2,629 km — Silves (966; Written at the time)
- 2,624 km — Algeciras (858–859; Written at the time)

## Did they get there?

Answer from what you now know. Each answer says how we know it.

1. **The Vikings took Seville by force in 844.** Yes. Yes. Ibn Idhari says they took Seville by force in autumn 844 and held it about seven days, until the emir's army defeated them; they left after about 42 days. It was a brief hold, not a conquest.
2. **The Vikings sacked Rome.** No. No. The only source is Dudo's tale in which Hastein takes the city of Luna believing it to be Rome. Pisa is named in one line of the Annals of St-Bertin for 860, taken by Danes from the Rhône; that line is contemporary but stands alone.
3. **Northmen stabled their horses in the king's chapel at Aachen.** Yes. Yes. The Annals of Fulda, in a continuation written within a few years, say the Northmen made a stable for their horses in the king's chapel at the Aachen palace. It is a single contemporary source; the Annals of Vedast say only that the palace was burned.
4. **The Vikings captured Paris in the siege of 885–886.** No. No. In 885–886 the Northmen judged the town on the island too strong, dragged their ships overland past it and went up the Seine. Earlier they were paid to leave in 845 and burned its churches in 856–857 and 861; each time the town survived.
5. **Lindisfarne in 793 was the first Viking raid on Britain.** No. No. The Anglo-Saxon Chronicle has an earlier landing of three ships in Wessex, entered under 787 (often given as 789), where the king's reeve was killed. Lindisfarne is the first recorded attack on a major monastery and the first to shock contemporaries such as Alcuin.
6. **Nobody lived in Iceland before the Norse arrived.** No. No. Ari the Learned says Irish Christians ('papar') were in Iceland when the Norse arrived and left books, bells and croziers; Dicuil in 825 reports Irish hermits on northern islands. The radiocarbon dates from before the Norse are from the Faroes; for Iceland the evidence is written.
7. **The Vikings reached North Africa.** Yes. Yes. Al-Bakri says the Majus took Nakur in the Rif in AH 244 (858–859) and held it eight days, and the Latin Chronicle of Alfonso III independently names 'Nacchor, a city of Mauritania'. Arzila is a weaker, later tale.
8. **Scandinavians are known to have reached Baghdad.** No. No. Ibn Khurradadhbih says Rus merchants sometimes carry goods by camel from the Caspian to Baghdad, but he calls the Rus a Slavic people and names no eyewitness. No Scandinavian grave, camp or inscription is reported from Baghdad, Iran or Central Asia.
9. **Scandinavians left runic graffiti in Hagia Sophia.** Yes. Yes. The graffiti are read in Rundata as the names Arinbarðr, Halfdan (a fragment) and Arni; the Halfdan graffito is usually dated to the 9th century or later. None of the names is Harald, so they do not point to Harald Hardrada.
10. **Scandinavians are known to have sailed up the Danube into Romania.** No. No. No source consulted puts Scandinavians in Romanian territory. About 950 Constantine VII has the Rus convoy pass the Danube mouth and coast south past Constantia (probably Constanța), following the shore. Svyatoslav's Norse-led army held Dorostolon (Silistra, Bulgaria) in 967–971.

## Things people believe about the Vikings, checked

- **The Vikings first raided Britain at Lindisfarne in 793.** (False) The Anglo-Saxon Chronicle has an earlier landing of three ships in Wessex, entered under 787 (often given as 789), where the king's reeve was killed; Aethelweard names him Beaduherd. Neither names Portland. Lindisfarne (793) is the first recorded attack on a major monastery and the first to shock contemporaries such as Alcuin.
- **Vikings wore horned helmets.** (False) The horned Viking is a 19th-century image. Roberta Frank traces it to cow-horn helmets designed by Carl Emil Doepler for the first full Ring des Nibelungen at Bayreuth in 1876; archaeologists say horned helmets were never connected with Vikings. The nearly complete helmet from Gjermundbu, Norway, found in 1943, has no horns.
- **The Scandinavians called themselves Vikings, and so did their victims.** (Partly) The word existed in both languages, but for a raid or a raider, not for a nation. On runestones víking means an expedition and víkingr a man who went on one; the victims' chronicles mostly say Northmen, Danes, heathens, Rhos or majus. Of the English sources consulted, only The Battle of Maldon (991) uses wicingas.
- **Vikings only raided.** (False) Vikings also traded: trading towns in the homelands date from about 705 (Ribe) to about 800 (Kaupang), with Birka about 750 and Hedeby about 770. Ibn Khurradadhbih describes Rus merchants selling furs and swords in the Byzantine world, and Ibn Fadlan met Rus who 'had come for trade' on the Volga.
- **Ragnar Lothbrok conquered England.** (False) In the texts searched, neither the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle nor Asser's Life of Alfred mentions a Ragnar; the Chronicle names Hingwar and Hubba as the leaders who killed King Edmund. In Ragnars saga, written centuries later, Ragnar lands with two ships, is beaten by King Ella and thrown into a snake pit; his sons return.
- **The Danelaw was a Viking country created by the treaty of Wedmore in 878.** (False) No agreement from 878 is recorded; the surviving treaty, from after 880, covers only Wessex and Guthrum's East Anglia. The word Danelaw (Dena lagu, 'law of the Danes') first appears about 130 years later, in Wulfstan's lawcodes, naming a body of custom; the regions later so called were never a single state.
- **Dublin was founded by the Vikings on empty ground.** (Partly) The Annals of Ulster record a fight at Áth Cliath, the 'ford of hurdles' at Dublin, in 770 and the death of an abbot of Duiblinn ('black pool') in 790, so a Gaelic ford and church site predates the Vikings. Their naval camp at Duiblinn is recorded in 841; the medieval town grew from it.
- **The Vikings were the first people to settle the Faroe Islands and Iceland.** (False) Barley grains from Sandoy in the Faroes date, by radiocarbon, to the 4th–6th and 6th–8th centuries, hundreds of years before the Norse. Ari the Learned says Irish Christians ('papar') were in Iceland when the Norse arrived, and Dicuil in 825 reports Irish hermits on northern islands who left because of Norse raiders.
- **Vikings destroyed Paris.** (Partly) The town on the island survived each time. Northmen reached Paris in 845 and were paid to leave, burned its churches in 856–857 and again in 861, and besieged it in 885–886, when they judged it too strong and dragged their ships overland past it up the Seine.
- **Rollo led the Northmen at the siege of Paris in 885–886.** (False) The eyewitness Abbo names Sigefredus (Sigfred) as the leader who spoke to Bishop Gozlin, and calls him 'king only in word'. Rollo does not appear in Abbo or in the annals of St-Bertin, Fulda, Xanten and Vedast, or in Regino. Only Dudo of Saint-Quentin, writing about 1015, has Rollo besiege Paris.
- **A fleet of 1,000 ships attacked Paris.** (False) No source found gives 1,000. Abbo puts the fleet at Paris in 885 at 'seven times a hundred' large ships plus smaller vessels beyond count; the chronicles give 120 ships on the Seine in 845 and more than 200 with Weland in 861. All are chroniclers' claims, not counts.
- **Vikings sacked Rome or Pisa.** (Partly) The only source for Rome is Dudo's tale in which Hastein takes the city of Luna believing it to be Rome. Pisa is named in one line of the Annals of St-Bertin for 860, as taken by Danes from the Rhône; that line is contemporary but stands alone.
- **Vikings reached North Africa.** (True) Al-Bakri says the Majus took Nakur in the Rif in AH 244 (858–859) and held it eight days, and the Latin Chronicle of Alfonso III independently names 'Nacchor, a city of Mauritania'. Arzila is a weaker, later tale.
- **The Normans who conquered Sicily were Vikings.** (False) They were descendants of Scandinavian settlers in Normandy, who by then spoke French and had a new religion, law and way of life. The duchy came from the settlement at Saint-Clair-sur-Epte with Rollo in the early 10th century, well over a century before the Sicilian conquests of the 1060s onward.
- **Vikings reached Baghdad.** (Partly) A 9th-century geographer, Ibn Khurradadhbih, says Rus merchants sometimes carry goods by camel from the Caspian to Baghdad, but he calls the Rus a Slavic people and names no eyewitness. No Scandinavian grave, camp or inscription is reported from Baghdad, Iran or Central Asia; Islamic silver, though, reached Scandinavia in very large amounts.
- **The Varangian Guard were Vikings.** (Partly) The first contingent came in 988 from Vladimir of Kyiv, and Psellos calls its men Scythians. Hagia Sophia carries Scandinavian runic graffiti, and Rundata has 30 inscriptions mentioning Greece or the Greeks. The men were Scandinavian in the mainstream view, but they are not shown to have been only Scandinavian.
- **Oleg nailed his shield to the gates of Constantinople.** (False) The Primary Chronicle, the only account, says the Rus hung their shields on the gates as a sign of victory in 907; it does not say Oleg nailed his own. The historian Vasiliev notes that the event is known 'according to the Russian chronicles'.
- **Harald Hardrada carved runes in Hagia Sophia and on the Piraeus Lion.** (False) The Hagia Sophia graffiti read Arinbarðr, Halfdan (a fragment) and Arni, and the Piraeus Lion, in Rundata's reading, names Haursi and Asmundr. None of these is Harald. Some have tried to trace his name on the lion, but the time it was carved does not fit his service with the emperor.
- **Ibn Fadlan saw a Viking ship burial.** (Partly) What Ibn Fadlan describes is a ship cremation: a Rus chieftain's ship set on a wooden scaffold and burned with him and a slave girl. He does not name the place, the people he calls Rusiyyah may not be simply Vikings, and no grave matching the account has been found.
- **A Buddha statuette found in Sweden shows Vikings travelled to India.** (False) The 8.4 cm bronze Buddha from Helgö, probably made in north-west India around the 6th century, was found with objects from before about AD 800, that is before the Viking Age. It shows that Indian goods reached Sweden by some route; it does not show that Scandinavians went to India.
- **Rurik came to Novgorod in 862.** (Partly) The year comes from a chronicle written about 1113, whose two preceding entries are empty. Tree rings date Ladoga's first wooden buildings to 753 or earlier, and in Kyiv no Norse objects are securely identified before about 950. So 862 is uncorroborated and looks like the chronicler's scheme; that does not show Rurik never existed.
- **Vikings sailed up the Danube into Romania.** (Partly) No source consulted puts Scandinavians in Romanian territory. About 950 Constantine VII has the Rus convoy pass the Danube mouth and coast south past Constantia (probably Constanța), following the shore, not the river. Svyatoslav's Norse-led army held Dorostolon (Silistra, Bulgaria) in 967–971; whether its base Pereyaslavets lay in Romania is unresolved.
- **A Viking runestone shows Vikings lived among the Vlachs in Romania.** (Partly) One Gotland runestone (G 134) says a man was betrayed by 'blakumenn' on a voyage, a word Rundata translates as 'Wallachians'. Heimskringla puts an emperor's campaign in Blokumannaland, with Varangians in his army. Neither names a place, and Pritsak reads the people as Cumans, so this cannot place Scandinavians in Romania.
- **The Viking Age ended at Stamford Bridge on 25 September 1066.** (Partly) The Anglo-Saxon Chronicle has Harald, King of Norway, killed at Stamford Bridge in 1066, but Danish fleets came again: it records three sons of King Sweyn with 240 ships in the Humber in 1069. Rundata labels 154 inscriptions 'Viking age' whose date range runs past 1100.

## Every place on the map

All 120 places in date order. The distance is a straight line from the Kattegat.

| Place | Year | Kind | Evidence | km from home |
| --- | --- | --- | --- | ---: |
| Grobiņa | 650–850 | settlement | Found on the ground | 621 |
| Ribe | 705–1000 | trade town | Found on the ground | 232 |
| Birka | 750–980 | trade town | Found on the ground | 463 |
| Salme | 750 | grave | Found on the ground | 682 |
| Staraya Ladoga | 753–1100 | settlement | Found on the ground | 1,275 |
| Storhaug, Karmøy | 779 | grave | Found on the ground | 425 |
| Dorset coast: the first ships | 787 | landing | Written at the time | 1,121 |
| Truso | 790–1050 | trade town | Found on the ground | 600 |
| Lindisfarne | 793 | raid | Written at the time | 801 |
| Monkwearmouth and Jarrow | 794 | raid | Written at the time | 804 |
| Kaupang | 800–950 | trade town | Found on the ground | 232 |
| Brough of Birsay | 801–1100 | settlement | Found on the ground | 874 |
| Cnip, Isle of Lewis | 801–999 | grave | Found on the ground | 1,074 |
| Jarlshof | 801–1299 | settlement | Found on the ground | 782 |
| Faroe Islands | 801–1100 | settlement | Found on the ground | 1,161 |
| Iona | 802–806 | raid | Written at the time | 1,062 |
| Hedeby | 804–1066 | trade town | Found on the ground | 293 |
| Frisia | 810 | raid | Written at the time | 536 |
| Amastris | 818–870 | raid | Legend or disputed | 2,277 |
| Noirmoutier | 819–846 | raid | Written at the time | 1,429 |
| Ingelheim | 826–839 | military service | Written at the time | 799 |
| Sarskoe Gorodishche | 830–900 | settlement | Found on the ground | 1,699 |
| Dorestad | 834–863 | raid | Written at the time | 667 |
| Oseberg and Gokstad | 834–905 | grave | Found on the ground | 259 |
| Walcheren | 837–841 | raid | Written at the time | 776 |
| Constantinople | 838–1150 | inscription | Found on the ground | 2,195 |
| Dublin | 841–1014 | winter camp | Found on the ground | 1,165 |
| Rouen | 841–862 | raid | Written at the time | 1,066 |
| Nantes | 843 | raid | Written at the time | 1,380 |
| Arzila | 844 | landing | Legend or disputed | 2,713 |
| Brittany | 844–891 | battle | Written at the time | 1,355 |
| Cadiz | 844 | raid | Written at the time | 2,613 |
| A Coruña | 844 | battle | Written at the time | 2,035 |
| Gijón | 844 | raid | Written at the time | 1,898 |
| Lisbon | 844–966 | raid | Written at the time | 2,508 |
| Medina Sidonia | 844 | raid | Written at the time | 2,607 |
| Niebla | 844 | stop on a route | Written at the time | 2,542 |
| Seville | 844 | raid | Written at the time | 2,515 |
| Toulouse | 844 | raid | Written at the time | 1,634 |
| Hamburg | 845 | raid | Written at the time | 389 |
| Paris | 845–887 | raid | Written at the time | 1,074 |
| Baghdad | 846–886 | trade town | Legend or disputed | 3,645 |
| Bordeaux | 847–855 | siege | Written at the time | 1,572 |
| Balladoole, Isle of Man | 850–950 | grave | Found on the ground | 1,036 |
| Île de Groix | 850–910 | grave | Found on the ground | 1,425 |
| Novgorod (Rurikovo Gorodishche) | 850–1100 | settlement | Found on the ground | 1,210 |
| London | 851–994 | raid | Written at the time | 941 |
| Isle of Thanet | 851–865 | winter camp | Written at the time | 885 |
| Anglesey | 853–878 | raid | Written at the time | 1,056 |
| Tours | 853–854 | raid | Written at the time | 1,276 |
| Angers | 854–873 | siege | Written at the time | 1,316 |
| Orléans | 856–865 | raid | Written at the time | 1,183 |
| Chartres | 857–911 | raid | Written at the time | 1,144 |
| Algeciras | 858–859 | raid | Written at the time | 2,624 |
| Balearic Islands | 858–861 | raid | Written at the time | 2,018 |
| Nekor | 858–859 | raid | Written at the time | 2,678 |
| Orihuela | 858–859 | raid | Written at the time | 2,278 |
| Camargue | 859–860 | winter camp | Written at the time | 1,566 |
| Amiens | 859–860 | winter camp | Written at the time | 977 |
| Luni | 860 | raid | Legend or disputed | 1,438 |
| Pisa | 860 | raid | Written at the time | 1,477 |
| Valence | 860 | raid | Written at the time | 1,407 |
| York | 866–954 | settlement | Found on the ground | 831 |
| Nottingham | 868 | winter camp | Written at the time | 894 |
| Dumbarton Rock | 870–871 | siege | Written at the time | 961 |
| Thetford | 870 | winter camp | Written at the time | 832 |
| Reading | 871 | battle | Written at the time | 991 |
| Reykjavík | 871–1000 | settlement | Found on the ground | 1,939 |
| Torksey | 872–873 | winter camp | Found on the ground | 850 |
| Repton | 873–874 | winter camp | Found on the ground | 924 |
| Exeter | 876–877 | siege | Written at the time | 1,177 |
| Edington | 878 | battle | Written at the time | 1,062 |
| Ghent | 879–881 | winter camp | Written at the time | 813 |
| Arras | 880–881 | raid | Written at the time | 921 |
| Nijmegen | 880–881 | winter camp | Written at the time | 662 |
| Aachen | 881–882 | raid | Written at the time | 763 |
| Cologne and Bonn | 881–882 | raid | Written at the time | 723 |
| Elsloo | 881–882 | siege | Written at the time | 754 |
| Saint-Riquier | 881 | raid | Written at the time | 968 |
| Saucourt-en-Vimeu | 881 | battle | Written at the time | 987 |
| Kyiv | 882–990 | stop on a route | Found on the ground | 1,469 |
| Trier | 882 | raid | Written at the time | 855 |
| Leuven | 891 | battle | Written at the time | 795 |
| Gnezdovo | 900–1000 | grave | Found on the ground | 1,320 |
| Ladby | 900–925 | grave | Found on the ground | 175 |
| Shestovitsa | 900–1000 | grave | Found on the ground | 1,447 |
| Timerevo | 900–1000 | grave | Found on the ground | 1,714 |
| Ridgeway Hill | 901–1100 | grave | Found on the ground | 1,127 |
| Wirral | 902–907 | settlement | Legend or disputed | 980 |
| Saint-Clair-sur-Epte | 911–918 | settlement | Written at the time | 1,064 |
| Abaskun | 912–914 | raid | Written at the time | 3,849 |
| Baku | 912–914 | raid | Written at the time | 3,329 |
| Volga Bulgaria | 921–922 | trade town | Written at the time | 2,347 |
| Limerick | 922 | raid | Written at the time | 1,341 |
| Þingvellir | 930 | settlement | Legend or disputed | 1,902 |
| Brunanburh | 937 | battle | Written at the time | 974 |
| The Five Boroughs | 942 | conquest | Written at the time | 889 |
| Barda’a | 943–944 | conquest | Written at the time | 3,175 |
| Constanța (Constantia) | 945–959 | stop on a route | Written at the time | 1,882 |
| Dnieper rapids | 945–972 | stop on a route | Written at the time | 1,887 |
| Konopas | 945–959 | stop on a route | Legend or disputed | 1,848 |
| Nesebar (Mesembria) | 945–959 | stop on a route | Written at the time | 1,984 |
| Sulina (Selinas) | 945–959 | stop on a route | Written at the time | 1,841 |
| Varna | 945–959 | stop on a route | Written at the time | 1,939 |
| Berezan | 950–1100 | inscription | Found on the ground | 1,806 |
| Tynwald Hill | 950–1000 | settlement | Legend or disputed | 1,028 |
| Alcácer do Sal | 966 | landing | Written at the time | 2,515 |
| Silves | 966 | battle | Written at the time | 2,629 |
| Pereyaslavets | 967–971 | conquest | Legend or disputed | 1,807 |
| Santiago de Compostela | 968–971 | raid | Written at the time | 2,087 |
| Silistra (Dorostolon) | 971 | siege | Written at the time | 1,826 |
| Wolin | 986–987 | landing | Written at the time | 419 |
| Maldon | 991 | battle | Written at the time | 887 |
| Tui | 1008–1024 | raid | Written at the time | 2,169 |
| Gainsborough | 1013–1014 | conquest | Written at the time | 846 |
| Castellum Vermudii (Braga) | 1014–1016 | landing | Written at the time | 2,206 |
| Assingdon | 1016–1017 | conquest | Written at the time | 897 |
| Piraeus | 1050–1100 | inscription | Found on the ground | 2,314 |
| Skuldelev ships | 1060–1090 | stop on a route | Found on the ground | 149 |
| Stamford Bridge | 1066 | battle | Written at the time | 820 |

## How the map was made

The map is a ledger. Each place has a record with the strongest evidence I could open and read: a passage of a chronicle, a report of an excavation, an inscription. Where the text is a translation, the record says whose. Every quotation behind a claim was checked against the text it came from.

Distances are straight lines from the Kattegat (57° N, 11° E), the middle of the Scandinavian homelands, on a map that keeps distances from that point true. They are not sailing distances. Coordinates are those of the modern town or site; for a river reach or an area they are approximate, and the record says by how much.

A place gets the mark of the strongest evidence for it. A place with both an excavation and a chronicle is “found there”. Some places carry several events with different marks, and the card lists each one.

The map holds what the sources I could read say. A place that is missing may have been visited; the map does not say it was not.

- [Daniel Gunnarsson, The Scandinavian Settlement at Grobina, Latvia (BA thesis, Gotland University, 2012)](https://www.diva-portal.org/smash/get/diva2:537484/FULLTEXT01.pdf)
- [Rimbert, Vita Anskarii, tr. C. H. Robinson, Anskar, the Apostle of the North, 801-865 (London: SPG, 1921), chapter as named in the quote note [chapter XXX]](https://archive.org/details/anskarapostle00robiuoft)
- [T. D. Price, J. Peets, R. Allmae, L. Maldre and E. Oras, 'Isotopic provenancing of the Salme ship burials in Pre-Viking Age Estonia', Antiquity 90 (352), 2016, 1022-1037, doi:10.15184/aqy.2016.106](https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/antiquity/article/isotopic-provenancing-of-the-salme-ship-burials-in-previking-age-estonia/2104723979CFABF9B89CD36851218E62/core-reader)
- [Viking Ship Museum, Roskilde: Ribe](https://www.vikingeskibsmuseet.dk/en/professions/education/viking-knowledge/the-viking-age-geography/vikingetiden-i-skandinavien/ribe)
- [Researcher cross-check of coordinates: Wikidata (P625) and OpenStreetMap Nominatim, fetched 2026-09-19](https://www.wikidata.org/)
- [UNESCO World Heritage Centre, Birka and Hovgarden (list no. 555), Outstanding Universal Value (opened via web.archive.org copy because whc.unesco.org returns 403 to automated fetch)](https://web.archive.org/web/2024/https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/555/)
- [Rimbert, Life of Anskar, ch. XI, trans. C. H. Robinson (1921; Internet Archive OCR)](https://archive.org/details/anskarapostle00robiuoft)
- [Rimbert, Life of Anskar, ch. X, trans. C. H. Robinson (1921; Internet Archive OCR)](https://archive.org/details/anskarapostle00robiuoft)
- [C. H. Robinson, Anskar, the Apostle of the North (1921), translator’s introduction](https://archive.org/details/anskarapostle00robiuoft)
- [A. Margaryan et al., 'Population genomics of the Viking world', Nature 585 (2020), 390-396, doi:10.1038/s41586-020-2688-8 (text read in the bioRxiv preprint, doi:10.1101/703405)](https://www.biorxiv.org/content/10.1101/703405v1.full)
- [Natalja V. Grigorjeva, 'Archaeological Evidence for Staraya Lagoda [sic] as an Early Scandinavian Emporium of the Global North', in C. Symes (ed.), The Global North (Arc Humanities Press, 2022), doi:10.1017/9781641894906.003 (abstract read; chapter not opened)](https://www.cambridge.org/core/books/abs/global-north/archaeological-evidence-for-staraya-lagoda-as-an-early-scandinavian-emporium-of-the-global-north/A050190A003274AB05E9A5B1190D1781)
- [Rundata-net](https://rundata.info/)
- [Wladyslaw Duczko, Viking Rus. Studies on the Presence of Scandinavians in Eastern Europe (The Northern World 12; Leiden: Brill, 2004), section as headed in the raw file [on the Norse material of Ladoga and Rurikovo Gorodishche from the later 9th century]](https://www.cesecom.it/backoffice/media/handlerObject.ashx?id=256%7Cn)
- [N. Bonde and F.-A. Stylegar, Between Sutton Hoo and Oseberg: dendrochronology and the origins of the ship burial tradition, Danish Journal of Archaeology 5 (2016) 19-33, doi:10.1080/21662282.2016.1245885 (open access)](https://tidsskrift.dk/dja/article/view/124843)
- [The Anglo-Saxon Chronicle, tr. J. Ingram (with J. A. Giles), Project Gutenberg eBook #657 (public-domain 19th-century translation), entry, s.a. 787](https://www.gutenberg.org/cache/epub/657/pg657.txt)
- [Chronicle of Aethelweard, tr. J. A. Giles, in Old English Chronicles (Bohn, 1848), Project Gutenberg #37848, opening of Book III (excerpt), Book III opening](https://www.gutenberg.org/cache/epub/37848/pg37848.txt)
- [Marek F. Jagodzinski, 'The settlement of Truso', in the Wulfstan's Voyage volume (Viking Ship Museum, Roskilde; Elblag Museum reprint)](https://muzeum.elblag.pl/wp-content/uploads/2021/03/MFJ1_Jagodzinski_The_settlement_of_Truso.pdf)
- [Ohthere's and Wulfstan's voyages, in the Old English Orosius (Alfred's reign), text in J. W. Bright, Bright's Anglo-Saxon Reader (Wikisource transcription)](https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Bright%27s_Anglo-Saxon_Reader/The_Voyages_of_Ohthere_and_Wulfstan)
- [The Anglo-Saxon Chronicle, tr. J. Ingram (with J. A. Giles), Project Gutenberg eBook #657 (public-domain 19th-century translation), entry, s.a. 793](https://www.gutenberg.org/cache/epub/657/pg657.txt)
- [Martha Carlin (Univ. of Wisconsin-Milwaukee), 'Lindisfarne' page reproducing translated extracts of Alcuin's letters of 793 and of the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle and Symeon of Durham](https://sites.uwm.edu/carlin/lindisfarne/)
- [Martha Carlin (Univ. of Wisconsin-Milwaukee), 'Lindisfarne' page reproducing translated extracts of Alcuin's letters of 793 and of the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle and Symeon of Durham, Alcuin, letter to King Aethelred (as quoted on this page)](https://sites.uwm.edu/carlin/lindisfarne/)
- [The Anglo-Saxon Chronicle, tr. J. Ingram (with J. A. Giles), Project Gutenberg eBook #657 (public-domain 19th-century translation), entry, s.a. 794](https://www.gutenberg.org/cache/epub/657/pg657.txt)
- [Annals of Ulster (to AD 1131), ed. and tr. Seán Mac Airt and Gearóid Mac Niocaill (Dublin 1983), CELT edition T100001A, entry, entry U794.7](https://celt.ucc.ie/published/T100001A.html)
- [Kaupangprosjektet (University of Oslo Kaupang Excavation Project), "Kaupangen i Skiringssal - vikingenes handelssenter", presentation page in Norwegian (text checked by C. Blindheim; opened via web.archive.org, 2010 copy)](https://web.archive.org/web/2010/http://www.kaupangprosjektet.no/presentasjon/Norwegian/kaupang.html)
- [Viking Ship Museum, Roskilde: Haithabu](https://www.vikingeskibsmuseet.dk/en/professions/education/viking-knowledge/the-viking-age-geography/vikingetiden-i-skandinavien/haithabu)
- [Ohthere's and Wulfstan's voyages, from King Alfred's Old English Orosius (late 9th century), in Bright's Anglo-Saxon Reader (Wikisource)](https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Bright%27s_Anglo-Saxon_Reader/The_Voyages_of_Ohthere_and_Wulfstan)
- [Historic Environment Scotland, 'History and stories: Brough of Birsay', Norse settlement section](https://www.historicenvironment.scot/visit-a-place/places/brough-of-birsay/history/)
- [Historic Environment Scotland, 'History and stories: Brough of Birsay', introduction](https://www.historicenvironment.scot/visit-a-place/places/brough-of-birsay/history/)
- [A. J. Dunwell, T. G. Cowie, M. F. Bruce, T. Neighbour and A. R. Rees, 'A Viking Age cemetery at Cnip, Uig, Isle of Lewis', Proceedings of the Society of Antiquaries of Scotland 125 (1995), 719-752, abstract](http://journals.socantscot.org/index.php/psas/article/download/9903/9870)
- [Historic Environment Scotland, 'History and stories: Jarlshof Prehistoric and Norse Settlement', Coming of the Norsemen](https://www.historicenvironment.scot/visit-a-place/places/jarlshof-prehistoric-and-norse-settlement/history/)
- [Historic Environment Scotland, 'History and stories: Jarlshof Prehistoric and Norse Settlement', site history](https://www.historicenvironment.scot/visit-a-place/places/jarlshof-prehistoric-and-norse-settlement/history/)
- [Projekt Forlog, 'Archaeology of Viking Age Faroe Islands' (Czech Old Norse project; overview of Faroese excavations at Kvivik, Tjornuvik, a Sondum), Faroese archaeology overview](https://sagy.vikingove.cz/en/archaeology-of-viking-age-faeroe-islands/)
- [Faereyinga saga, opening chapter (Old Norse, normalised Icelandic spelling), heimskringla.no, saga opening](https://heimskringla.no/wiki/F%C3%A6reyinga_saga)
- [Dicuil, De mensura orbis terrae (825), Latin text, LacusCurtius (Univ. of Chicago), book 7 section 3, De mensura orbis terrae 7.3](http://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Dicuil/De_mensura_orbis_terrae/text*.html)
- [Annals of Ulster (to AD 1131), ed. and tr. Seán Mac Airt and Gearóid Mac Niocaill (Dublin 1983), CELT edition T100001A, entry, entry U802.9](https://celt.ucc.ie/published/T100001A.html)
- [Annals of Ulster (to AD 1131), ed. and tr. Seán Mac Airt and Gearóid Mac Niocaill (Dublin 1983), CELT edition T100001A, entry, entry U806.8](https://celt.ucc.ie/published/T100001A.html)
- [Annals of Ulster (to AD 1131), ed. and tr. Seán Mac Airt and Gearóid Mac Niocaill (Dublin 1983), CELT edition T100001A, entry, entry U804.12](https://celt.ucc.ie/published/T100001A.html)
- [Annals of Ulster (to AD 1131), ed. and tr. Seán Mac Airt and Gearóid Mac Niocaill (Dublin 1983), CELT edition T100001A, entry, entry U807.4](https://celt.ucc.ie/published/T100001A.html)
- [Annals of Ulster (to AD 1131), ed. and tr. Seán Mac Airt and Gearóid Mac Niocaill (Dublin 1983), CELT edition T100001A, entry, entry U795.3](https://celt.ucc.ie/published/T100001A.html)
- [Annales regni Francorum, s.a. 804 (Latin, la.wikisource.org)](https://la.wikisource.org/wiki/Annales_regni_Francorum)
- [Annales regni Francorum, s.a. 808 (Latin, la.wikisource.org)](https://la.wikisource.org/wiki/Annales_regni_Francorum)
- [UNESCO World Heritage Centre, Archaeological Border complex of Hedeby and the Danevirke (list no. 1553), Outstanding Universal Value (opened via web.archive.org copy)](https://web.archive.org/web/2024/https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/1553/)
- [Annales regni Francorum, ed. F. Kurze, MGH SS rer. Germ. 6, Hannover 1895, entry for 810](https://archive.org/details/annalesregnifran00anna)
- [A.A. Vasiliev, The Russian Attack on Constantinople in 860 (Cambridge, Mass., 1946), chapter on the Lives of George of Amastris and Stephen of Surozh, translating the Life, section 43](https://archive.org/stream/193332018Vasiliev1946TheRussianAttackOnConstantinopleIn860/193332018-Vasiliev-1946-The-Russian-Attack-on-Constantinople-in-860_djvu.txt)
- [A.A. Vasiliev, The Russian Attack on Constantinople in 860 (Cambridge, Mass., 1946), same chapter, argument against a date before 842](https://archive.org/stream/193332018Vasiliev1946TheRussianAttackOnConstantinopleIn860/193332018-Vasiliev-1946-The-Russian-Attack-on-Constantinople-in-860_djvu.txt)
- [R. Poupardin (ed.), Monuments de l'histoire des abbayes de Saint-Philibert (Noirmoutier, Grandlieu, Tournus), Paris 1905, n. 6 to the introduction, quoting the diploma of Louis the Pious of 16 March 819 (n. 1 in the list of diplomas)](https://archive.org/details/monumentsdelhist00unse)
- [R. Poupardin (ed.), Monuments de l'histoire des abbayes de Saint-Philibert (Noirmoutier, Grandlieu, Tournus), Paris 1905, Ermentarius, Miracula sancti Filiberti I, prologue](https://archive.org/details/monumentsdelhist00unse)
- [R. Poupardin (ed.), Monuments de l'histoire des abbayes de Saint-Philibert (Noirmoutier, Grandlieu, Tournus), Paris 1905, Ermentarius, Miracula sancti Filiberti II, c. 11 (battle of August 835)](https://archive.org/details/monumentsdelhist00unse)
- [R. Poupardin (ed.), Monuments de l'histoire des abbayes de Saint-Philibert (Noirmoutier, Grandlieu, Tournus), Paris 1905, Ermentarius, Miracula sancti Filiberti II, c. 11](https://archive.org/details/monumentsdelhist00unse)
- [R. Poupardin (ed.), Monuments de l'histoire des abbayes de Saint-Philibert (Noirmoutier, Grandlieu, Tournus), Paris 1905, n. 2 to the introduction, quoting the Chronicon Aquitanicum s.a. 835](https://archive.org/details/monumentsdelhist00unse)
- [R. Poupardin (ed.), Monuments de l'histoire des abbayes de Saint-Philibert (Noirmoutier, Grandlieu, Tournus), Paris 1905, n. 5 to the introduction, quoting the Chronicon Engolismense s.a. 846](https://archive.org/details/monumentsdelhist00unse)
- [Annales Bertiniani, ed. G. Waitz, MGH Scriptores rerum Germanicarum in usum scholarum 5, Hannover 1883 (Prudentius of Troyes to 861, Hincmar of Reims from 861), entry for 843 (island not named)](https://archive.org/details/annalesbertinian00wait)
- [Annales regni Francorum, ed. F. Kurze, MGH SS rer. Germ. 6, Hannover 1895, entry for 820 (village on the Aquitanian coast; the OCR text prints "Burn")](https://archive.org/details/annalesregnifran00anna)
- [R. Poupardin (ed.), Monuments de l'histoire des abbayes de Saint-Philibert (Noirmoutier, Grandlieu, Tournus), Paris 1905, n. 3 to the introduction (identification of the 820 village)](https://archive.org/details/monumentsdelhist00unse)
- [Annales regni Francorum, ed. F. Kurze, MGH SS rer. Germ. 6, Hannover 1895, entry for 826](https://archive.org/details/annalesregnifran00anna)
- [Annales Bertiniani, ed. G. Waitz, MGH SS rer. Germ. (Hannover, 1883), entry for 839 (Prudentius of Troyes)](https://archive.org/details/annalesbertinianOOwait)
- [Wladyslaw Duczko, Viking Rus. Studies on the Presence of Scandinavians in Eastern Europe (The Northern World 12; Leiden: Brill, 2004), section as headed in the raw file](https://www.cesecom.it/backoffice/media/handlerObject.ashx?id=256%7Cn)
- [Annales Xantenses, ed. B. von Simson, MGH SS rer. Germ. 12, Hannover 1909, entry for 834](https://archive.org/details/annalesxantense12v13sims)
- [Annales Bertiniani, ed. G. Waitz, MGH Scriptores rerum Germanicarum in usum scholarum 5, Hannover 1883 (Prudentius of Troyes to 861, Hincmar of Reims from 861), entry for 834](https://archive.org/details/annalesbertinian00wait)
- [Annales Bertiniani, ed. G. Waitz, MGH Scriptores rerum Germanicarum in usum scholarum 5, Hannover 1883 (Prudentius of Troyes to 861, Hincmar of Reims from 861), entry for 857](https://archive.org/details/annalesbertinian00wait)
- [Annales Bertiniani, ed. G. Waitz, MGH Scriptores rerum Germanicarum in usum scholarum 5, Hannover 1883 (Prudentius of Troyes to 861, Hincmar of Reims from 861), entry for 863](https://archive.org/details/annalesbertinian00wait)
- [Annales Bertiniani, ed. G. Waitz, MGH Scriptores rerum Germanicarum in usum scholarum 5, Hannover 1883 (Prudentius of Troyes to 861, Hincmar of Reims from 861), entry for 850](https://archive.org/details/annalesbertinian00wait)
- [Annales Fuldenses, ed. F. Kurze, MGH SS rer. Germ. 7, Hannover 1891, entry for 850 (Rorik)](https://archive.org/details/annalesfuldenses00einhuoft)
- [Viking Ship Museum, Roskilde: Sea Stallion from Glendalough](https://www.vikingeskibsmuseet.dk/en/professions/the-boat-collection/sea-stallion-from-glendalough)
- [Viking Ship Museum, Roskilde: Trial voyages and voyage documentation](https://www.vikingeskibsmuseet.dk/en/professions/boatyard/experimental-archaeological-research/sailing-trials/trial-voyages)
- [Annales Bertiniani, ed. G. Waitz, MGH Scriptores rerum Germanicarum in usum scholarum 5, Hannover 1883 (Prudentius of Troyes to 861, Hincmar of Reims from 861), entry for 837](https://archive.org/details/annalesbertinian00wait)
- [Annales Bertiniani, ed. G. Waitz, MGH Scriptores rerum Germanicarum in usum scholarum 5, Hannover 1883 (Prudentius of Troyes to 861, Hincmar of Reims from 861), entry for 841](https://archive.org/details/annalesbertinian00wait)
- [Scandinavian Runic-text Database (Samnordisk runtextdatabas](https://rundata.info/)
- [E.A. Melnikova, 'A new Scandinavian runic inscription from Hagia Sophia in Constantinople', Drevneishie gosudarstva Vostochnoi Evropy 2011 (2013), 521-529, abstract](https://dgve.igh.ru/issues/34/articles/216?locale=en)
- [Wikipedia, 'Runic inscriptions in Hagia Sophia' (lead; background on the 1964 discovery, not the record)](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Runic_inscriptions_in_Hagia_Sophia)
- [A.A. Vasiliev, The Russian Attack on Constantinople in 860 (Cambridge, Mass., 1946), chapter on the first appearance of the Russians in Constantinople](https://archive.org/stream/193332018Vasiliev1946TheRussianAttackOnConstantinopleIn860/193332018-Vasiliev-1946-The-Russian-Attack-on-Constantinople-in-860_djvu.txt)
- [A.A. Vasiliev, The Russian Attack on Constantinople in 860 (Cambridge, Mass., 1946), chapter on the date of the attack, Brussels Chronicle](https://archive.org/stream/193332018Vasiliev1946TheRussianAttackOnConstantinopleIn860/193332018-Vasiliev-1946-The-Russian-Attack-on-Constantinople-in-860_djvu.txt)
- [A.A. Vasiliev, The Russian Attack on Constantinople in 860 (Cambridge, Mass., 1946), same chapter](https://archive.org/stream/193332018Vasiliev1946TheRussianAttackOnConstantinopleIn860/193332018-Vasiliev-1946-The-Russian-Attack-on-Constantinople-in-860_djvu.txt)
- [A.A. Vasiliev, The Russian Attack on Constantinople in 860 (Cambridge, Mass., 1946), chapter on the attack, quoting Photios, second homily](https://archive.org/stream/193332018Vasiliev1946TheRussianAttackOnConstantinopleIn860/193332018-Vasiliev-1946-The-Russian-Attack-on-Constantinople-in-860_djvu.txt)
- [A.A. Vasiliev, The Russian Attack on Constantinople in 860 (Cambridge, Mass., 1946), chapter on the attack](https://archive.org/stream/193332018Vasiliev1946TheRussianAttackOnConstantinopleIn860/193332018-Vasiliev-1946-The-Russian-Attack-on-Constantinople-in-860_djvu.txt)
- [Primary Chronicle (Povest' vremennykh let), Laurentian text, trans. S.H. Cross and O.P. Sherbowitz-Wetzor (Cambridge, Mass., 1953), entry 6371-6374 (863-866)](https://www.mgh-bibliothek.de/dokumente/a/a011458.pdf)
- [Primary Chronicle (Povest' vremennykh let), Laurentian text, trans. S.H. Cross and O.P. Sherbowitz-Wetzor (Cambridge, Mass., 1953), entry Introduction, note on chronology](https://www.mgh-bibliothek.de/dokumente/a/a011458.pdf)
- [Primary Chronicle (Povest' vremennykh let), Laurentian text, trans. S.H. Cross and O.P. Sherbowitz-Wetzor (Cambridge, Mass., 1953), entry 6412-6415 (904-907)](https://www.mgh-bibliothek.de/dokumente/a/a011458.pdf)
- [Primary Chronicle (Povest' vremennykh let), Laurentian text, trans. S.H. Cross and O.P. Sherbowitz-Wetzor (Cambridge, Mass., 1953), entry 6420 (912), treaty opening](https://www.mgh-bibliothek.de/dokumente/a/a011458.pdf)
- [A.A. Vasiliev, The Russian Attack on Constantinople in 860 (Cambridge, Mass., 1946), chapter on Russo-Byzantine relations in the ninth and tenth centuries](https://archive.org/stream/193332018Vasiliev1946TheRussianAttackOnConstantinopleIn860/193332018-Vasiliev-1946-The-Russian-Attack-on-Constantinople-in-860_djvu.txt)
- [Liudprand of Cremona, Antapodosis, Book V ch. XV, trans. F.A. Wright, The Works of Liudprand of Cremona (London, 1930)](https://archive.org/details/theworksofliudprandwright)
- [Primary Chronicle (Povest' vremennykh let), Laurentian text, trans. S.H. Cross and O.P. Sherbowitz-Wetzor (Cambridge, Mass., 1953), entry 6443-6449 (935-941)](https://www.mgh-bibliothek.de/dokumente/a/a011458.pdf)
- [Primary Chronicle (Povest' vremennykh let), Laurentian text, trans. S.H. Cross and O.P. Sherbowitz-Wetzor (Cambridge, Mass., 1953), entry 6452 (944)](https://www.mgh-bibliothek.de/dokumente/a/a011458.pdf)
- [Primary Chronicle (Povest' vremennykh let), Laurentian text, trans. S.H. Cross and O.P. Sherbowitz-Wetzor (Cambridge, Mass., 1953), entry 6453 (945), treaty text](https://www.mgh-bibliothek.de/dokumente/a/a011458.pdf)
- [Constantine VII Porphyrogennetos, De cerimoniis aulae Byzantinae, ed. J.J. Reiske (Bonn, 1829), vol. I, Book II ch. 15, p. 594-595, Greek text](https://archive.org/details/constantiniporp00bekkgoog)
- [Constantine VII, De cerimoniis II.15, Reiske's Latin translation, Bonn ed. 1829, vol. I, p. 594-595](https://archive.org/details/constantiniporp00bekkgoog)
- [M. Featherstone, 'Olga's Visit to Constantinople in De Cerimoniis', Revue des etudes byzantines 61 (2003), 241-251, opening paragraph](https://www.persee.fr/doc/rebyz_0766-5598_2003_num_61_1_2280)
- [Primary Chronicle (Povest' vremennykh let), Laurentian text, trans. S.H. Cross and O.P. Sherbowitz-Wetzor (Cambridge, Mass., 1953), entry 6456-6463 (948-955)](https://www.mgh-bibliothek.de/dokumente/a/a011458.pdf)
- [D. Obolensky, 'Cherson and the conversion of Rus': an anti-revisionist view', Byzantine and Modern Greek Studies 13 (1989), 244-257](https://archive.org/details/obolensky-dimitri-cherson-and-the-conversion-of-rus-n-anti-revisionist-view-byza)
- [A. Airinei, 'The Varangian Guard and its contribution to the manifestation of the imperial power in Byzantium', Revista Romana de Studii Baltice si Nordice 7(2) (2015), 7-26, quoting Psellos, Chronographia, trans. E.R.A. Sewter (Penguin, 1966) - Psellos himself not opened](https://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/31a1/2a8dcff4e931ab4c05b38089e805ae5a23fd.pdf)
- [Primary Chronicle (Povest' vremennykh let), Laurentian text, trans. S.H. Cross and O.P. Sherbowitz-Wetzor (Cambridge, Mass., 1953), entry 6551 (1043)](https://www.mgh-bibliothek.de/dokumente/a/a011458.pdf)
- [Annals of Ulster (to AD 1131), ed. and tr. Seán Mac Airt and Gearóid Mac Niocaill (Dublin 1983), CELT edition T100001A, entry, entry U841.4](https://celt.ucc.ie/published/T100001A.html)
- [Annals of Ulster (to AD 1131), ed. and tr. Seán Mac Airt and Gearóid Mac Niocaill (Dublin 1983), CELT edition T100001A, entry, entry U842.2](https://celt.ucc.ie/published/T100001A.html)
- ['Wood Quay: revealing the heart of Viking Dublin', Current Archaeology (summarising Patrick Wallace's Wood Quay/Fishamble Street excavations and later work at Essex Street/Parliament Street), Fishamble Street/Essex Street summary](https://archaeology.co.uk/articles/features/wood-quay-revealing-the-heart-of-viking-dublin.htm)
- [Anthony King, 'The Vikings beneath modern Dublin', The Irish Times, 17 July 2014 (interviews with S. Harrison, L. Simpson), Linzi Simpson quoted](https://www.irishtimes.com/news/science/the-vikings-beneath-modern-dublin-1.1867504)
- [Anthony King, 'The Vikings beneath modern Dublin', The Irish Times, 17 July 2014 (interviews with S. Harrison, L. Simpson), Stephen Harrison quoted](https://www.irishtimes.com/news/science/the-vikings-beneath-modern-dublin-1.1867504)
- [Anthony King, 'The Vikings beneath modern Dublin', The Irish Times, 17 July 2014 (interviews with S. Harrison, L. Simpson), article text](https://www.irishtimes.com/news/science/the-vikings-beneath-modern-dublin-1.1867504)
- [Annals of Ulster (to AD 1131), ed. and tr. Seán Mac Airt and Gearóid Mac Niocaill (Dublin 1983), CELT edition T100001A, entry, entry U1014.2](https://celt.ucc.ie/published/T100001A.html)
- [Annales Bertiniani, ed. G. Waitz, MGH Scriptores rerum Germanicarum in usum scholarum 5, Hannover 1883 (Prudentius of Troyes to 861, Hincmar of Reims from 861), entry for 861](https://archive.org/details/annalesbertinian00wait)
- [Annales Bertiniani, ed. G. Waitz, MGH Scriptores rerum Germanicarum in usum scholarum 5, Hannover 1883 (Prudentius of Troyes to 861, Hincmar of Reims from 861), entry for 862](https://archive.org/details/annalesbertinian00wait)
- [Annales Bertiniani, ed. G. Waitz, MGH Scriptores rerum Germanicarum in usum scholarum 5, Hannover 1883 (Prudentius of Troyes to 861, Hincmar of Reims from 861), entry for 843](https://archive.org/details/annalesbertinian00wait)
- [R. Poupardin (ed.), Monuments de l'histoire des abbayes de Saint-Philibert (Noirmoutier, Grandlieu, Tournus), Paris 1905, Ermentarius, Miracula sancti Filiberti II (text printed in Poupardin)](https://archive.org/details/monumentsdelhist00unse)
- [R. Poupardin (ed.), Monuments de l'histoire des abbayes de Saint-Philibert (Noirmoutier, Grandlieu, Tournus), Paris 1905, Ermentarius, Miracula sancti Filiberti II](https://archive.org/details/monumentsdelhist00unse)
- [Regino of Prum, Chronicon, ed. F. Kurze, MGH SS rer. Germ. 50, Hannover 1890, entry for 853 (with marginal 843): killing of the bishop "on the holy sabbath of Easter"](https://archive.org/details/reginonisabbatis00regiuoft)
- [R. Merlet (ed.), La chronique de Nantes (570 environ-1049), Paris 1896, editor's note to c. VI (Gunhard, bishop of Nantes)](https://archive.org/details/lachroniquedenan00merl)
- [R. Merlet (ed.), La chronique de Nantes (570 environ-1049), Paris 1896, editor's note to c. VI](https://archive.org/details/lachroniquedenan00merl)
- [al-Bakri, 'Description de l'Afrique septentrionale', French trans. W. MacGuckin de Slane, revised ed., Alger, Jourdan, 1913 (reprint of the 1859 translation)](https://archive.org/details/fr103andalus05)
- [Ibn Idhari al-Marrakushi, al-Bayan al-Mughrib, French trans. E. Fagnan, 'Histoire de l'Afrique et de l'Espagne intitulee Al-Bayano'l-Mogrib', vol. I (North Africa), Alger, 1901 (date per archive.org metadata); passage on Asila, Arabic text I pp. 240-241](https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_MiyHAAAAMAAJ)
- [Annales Bertiniani, ed. G. Waitz, MGH Scriptores rerum Germanicarum in usum scholarum 5, Hannover 1883 (Prudentius of Troyes to 861, Hincmar of Reims from 861), entry for 844](https://archive.org/details/annalesbertinian00wait)
- [Annales Bertiniani, ed. G. Waitz, MGH Scriptores rerum Germanicarum in usum scholarum 5, Hannover 1883 (Prudentius of Troyes to 861, Hincmar of Reims from 861), entry for 847](https://archive.org/details/annalesbertinian00wait)
- [Regino of Prum, Chronicon, ed. F. Kurze, MGH SS rer. Germ. 50, Hannover 1890, entry for 891](https://archive.org/details/reginonisabbatis00regiuoft)
- [Ibn Idhari al-Marrakushi, al-Bayan al-Mughrib, French trans. E. Fagnan, 'Histoire de l'Afrique et de l'Espagne intitulee Al-Bayano'l-Mogrib', vol. II (Spain), Alger, Fontana](https://archive.org/details/HistoireDeLafriqueEtDeLespagneIntituleacuteeAl-bayanol-mogrib)
- [R. Dozy, 'Recherches sur l'histoire et la litterature de l'Espagne pendant le moyen age', 3rd ed., tome II, Paris/Leyde, 1881, chapter 'Les Normands en Espagne' (sections I-V); Dozy translates Arabic passages (Ibn Idhari, al-Nuwayri, Ibn al-Qutiyya, Ibn Dihya); section I 'Invasion de 844', translation of al-Nuwayri](https://archive.org/details/recherchessurlhi02dozyuoft)
- [Cronica de Alfonso III, ed. Z. Garcia Villada, Madrid 1918 (Latin text; Rotense/'redaccion primitiva' and 'segunda redaccion' ad Sebastianum); ad Sebastianum redaction, ed. p. 125](https://archive.org/details/cronicadealfons00alfo)
- [Historia Silense, ed. F. Santos Coco, Madrid 1921 (Latin; early 12th century; reuses Sampiro's chronicle); chapter on Ramiro I, ed. p. 29](https://archive.org/details/historiasilens00sant)
- [Cronica de Alfonso III, ed. Z. Garcia Villada, Madrid 1918 (Latin text; Rotense/'redaccion primitiva' and 'segunda redaccion' ad Sebastianum); editor's geographical index, entry 'Farum Brecantium'](https://archive.org/details/cronicadealfons00alfo)
- [Annales Bertiniani (Annals of St-Bertin), ed. G. Waitz, MGH SS rer. Germ., Hannover 1883; entries by Prudentius of Troyes (to 861) and Hincmar; entry s.a. 844 (Prudentius)](https://archive.org/details/annalesbertinian00wait)
- [Cronica de Alfonso III, ed. Z. Garcia Villada, Madrid 1918 (Latin text; Rotense/'redaccion primitiva' and 'segunda redaccion' ad Sebastianum); Rotense/primitive redaction, chapter on Ramiro I, ed. pp. 78-79](https://archive.org/details/cronicadealfons00alfo)
- [R. Dozy, 'Recherches sur l'histoire et la litterature de l'Espagne pendant le moyen age', 3rd ed., tome II, Paris/Leyde, 1881, chapter 'Les Normands en Espagne' (sections I-V); Dozy translates Arabic passages (Ibn Idhari, al-Nuwayri, Ibn al-Qutiyya, Ibn Dihya); section I 'Invasion de 844', translation of Ibn al-Qutiyya](https://archive.org/details/recherchessurlhi02dozyuoft)
- [R. Dozy, 'Recherches sur l'histoire et la litterature de l'Espagne pendant le moyen age', 3rd ed., tome II, Paris/Leyde, 1881, chapter 'Les Normands en Espagne' (sections I-V); Dozy translates Arabic passages (Ibn Idhari, al-Nuwayri, Ibn al-Qutiyya, Ibn Dihya); section I 'Invasion de 844', Dozy's comment on the Arabic sources](https://archive.org/details/recherchessurlhi02dozyuoft)
- [R. Dozy, 'Recherches sur l'histoire et la litterature de l'Espagne pendant le moyen age', 3rd ed., tome II, Paris/Leyde, 1881, chapter 'Les Normands en Espagne' (sections I-V); Dozy translates Arabic passages (Ibn Idhari, al-Nuwayri, Ibn al-Qutiyya, Ibn Dihya); section IV 'Invasions de 966-971'](https://archive.org/details/recherchessurlhi02dozyuoft)
- [R. Dozy, 'Recherches sur l'histoire et la litterature de l'Espagne pendant le moyen age', 3rd ed., tome II, Paris/Leyde, 1881, chapter 'Les Normands en Espagne' (sections I-V); Dozy translates Arabic passages (Ibn Idhari, al-Nuwayri, Ibn al-Qutiyya, Ibn Dihya); section I 'Invasion de 844', translation of Ibn Idhari](https://archive.org/details/recherchessurlhi02dozyuoft)
- [R. Dozy, 'Recherches sur l'histoire et la litterature de l'Espagne pendant le moyen age', 3rd ed., tome II, Paris/Leyde, 1881, chapter 'Les Normands en Espagne' (sections I-V); Dozy translates Arabic passages (Ibn Idhari, al-Nuwayri, Ibn al-Qutiyya, Ibn Dihya); section I 'Invasion de 844', translation of Ibn al-Qutiyya (10th century)](https://archive.org/details/recherchessurlhi02dozyuoft)
- [R. Dozy, 'Recherches sur l'histoire et la litterature de l'Espagne pendant le moyen age', 3rd ed., tome II, Paris/Leyde, 1881, chapter 'Les Normands en Espagne' (sections I-V); Dozy translates Arabic passages (Ibn Idhari, al-Nuwayri, Ibn al-Qutiyya, Ibn Dihya); section I 'Invasion de 844'](https://archive.org/details/recherchessurlhi02dozyuoft)
- [Cronica de Alfonso III, ed. Z. Garcia Villada, Madrid 1918 (Latin text; Rotense/'redaccion primitiva' and 'segunda redaccion' ad Sebastianum); Rotense/primitive redaction, ed. p. 79](https://archive.org/details/cronicadealfons00alfo)
- [Rimbert, Vita Anskarii, ed. G. Waitz, MGH SS rer. Germ. 55, Hannover 1884, c. 16 (marginal year 845)](https://archive.org/details/vitaanskariiauc00waitgoog)
- [Rimbert, Vita Anskarii, ed. G. Waitz, MGH SS rer. Germ. 55, Hannover 1884, c. 16](https://archive.org/details/vitaanskariiauc00waitgoog)
- [Annales Fuldenses, ed. F. Kurze, MGH SS rer. Germ. 7, Hannover 1891, entry for 845](https://archive.org/details/annalesfuldenses00einhuoft)
- [Annales Bertiniani, ed. G. Waitz, MGH Scriptores rerum Germanicarum in usum scholarum 5, Hannover 1883 (Prudentius of Troyes to 861, Hincmar of Reims from 861), entry for 845](https://archive.org/details/annalesbertinian00wait)
- [Annales Bertiniani, ed. G. Waitz, MGH Scriptores rerum Germanicarum in usum scholarum 5, Hannover 1883 (Prudentius of Troyes to 861, Hincmar of Reims from 861), entry for 845 (the "f" is an apparatus letter of the edition)](https://archive.org/details/annalesbertinian00wait)
- [Annales Xantenses, ed. B. von Simson, MGH SS rer. Germ. 12, Hannover 1909, entry for 845](https://archive.org/details/annalesxantense12v13sims)
- [B. von Simson, editorial footnote in Annales Xantenses, MGH SS rer. Germ. 12 (1909), note to 845, note 15 (OCR reads "Bagnar" for Ragnar)](https://archive.org/details/annalesxantense12v13sims)
- [Abbo of Saint-Germain-des-Pres, Bella Parisiacae urbis (De bello Parisiaco), Patrologia Latina 132 (Migne), text as transcribed on Latin Wikisource, Book I, under "An. 885", cols. 0725D-0726C as printed in the file](https://la.wikisource.org/wiki/De_bello_Parisiaco_(Abbo_Sangermanensis))
- [Abbo of Saint-Germain-des-Pres, Bella Parisiacae urbis (De bello Parisiaco), Patrologia Latina 132 (Migne), text as transcribed on Latin Wikisource, Book I, under "An. 885", col. 0726C](https://la.wikisource.org/wiki/De_bello_Parisiaco_(Abbo_Sangermanensis))
- [Abbo of Saint-Germain-des-Pres, Bella Parisiacae urbis (De bello Parisiaco), Patrologia Latina 132 (Migne), text as transcribed on Latin Wikisource, Book I, under "An. 885", col. 0726D](https://la.wikisource.org/wiki/De_bello_Parisiaco_(Abbo_Sangermanensis))
- [Abbo of Saint-Germain-des-Pres, Bella Parisiacae urbis (De bello Parisiaco), Patrologia Latina 132 (Migne), text as transcribed on Latin Wikisource, Book I, col. 0726D](https://la.wikisource.org/wiki/De_bello_Parisiaco_(Abbo_Sangermanensis))
- [Annales Vedastini (Annals of Saint-Vaast), ed. B. von Simson, MGH SS rer. Germ. 12, Hannover 1909, entry for 885](https://archive.org/details/annalesxantense12v13sims)
- [Regino of Prum, Chronicon, ed. F. Kurze, MGH SS rer. Germ. 50, Hannover 1890, entry for 886](https://archive.org/details/reginonisabbatis00regiuoft)
- [Annales Bertiniani, ed. G. Waitz, MGH Scriptores rerum Germanicarum in usum scholarum 5, Hannover 1883 (Prudentius of Troyes to 861, Hincmar of Reims from 861), entry for 865](https://archive.org/details/annalesbertinian00wait)
- [Annales Bertiniani, ed. G. Waitz, MGH Scriptores rerum Germanicarum in usum scholarum 5, Hannover 1883 (Prudentius of Troyes to 861, Hincmar of Reims from 861), entry for 866](https://archive.org/details/annalesbertinian00wait)
- [Ibn Khurradadhbih, Kitab al-masalik wa-l-mamalik, ed. and French trans. M.J. de Goeje, Bibliotheca Geographorum Arabicorum VI (Leiden, 1889), French translation p. 115-116, section 'Itineraire des marchands russes'](https://archive.org/details/bibliothecageogr06goej)
- [A.A. Vasiliev, The Russian Attack on Constantinople in 860 (Cambridge, Mass., 1946), chapter on the Life of George of Amastris, on Ibn Khurdadhbah](https://archive.org/stream/193332018Vasiliev1946TheRussianAttackOnConstantinopleIn860/193332018-Vasiliev-1946-The-Russian-Attack-on-Constantinople-in-860_djvu.txt)
- [A. Seek, Unveiling the Past: A re-examination of Arabic primary sources on the Rus, BA thesis, Uppsala University, 2024 (a student thesis; used only for the note on the Khamlij/Khalij reading)](https://uu.diva-portal.org/smash/get/diva2:1874777/FULLTEXT01.pdf)
- [Annales Bertiniani, ed. G. Waitz, MGH Scriptores rerum Germanicarum in usum scholarum 5, Hannover 1883 (Prudentius of Troyes to 861, Hincmar of Reims from 861), entry for 848](https://archive.org/details/annalesbertinian00wait)
- [Annales Bertiniani, ed. G. Waitz, MGH Scriptores rerum Germanicarum in usum scholarum 5, Hannover 1883 (Prudentius of Troyes to 861, Hincmar of Reims from 861), entry for 855](https://archive.org/details/annalesbertinian00wait)
- [R. Poupardin (ed.), Monuments de l'histoire des abbayes de Saint-Philibert (Noirmoutier, Grandlieu, Tournus), Paris 1905, Ermentarius, Miracula sancti Filiberti II (list of captured cities, undated)](https://archive.org/details/monumentsdelhist00unse)
- [Howard M. R. Williams (Univ. of Chester archaeologist), blog post 'Manx Vikings 1: Balladoole', 23 Aug 2015 (summarising Bersu excavation 1945 and D. Wilson publication 1966), blog post](https://howardwilliamsblog.wordpress.com/2015/08/23/manx-vikings-1-balladoole/)
- [H.-P. Eydoux, "La tombe viking de l'ile de Groix", Bulletin monumental 131/4 (1973), p. 371](https://www.persee.fr/doc/bulmo_0007-473x_1973_num_131_4_6863)
- [The Russian Primary Chronicle (Povest' vremennykh let), Laurentian text, tr. S. H. Cross and O. P. Sherbowitz-Wetzor (Cambridge MA: Mediaeval Academy of America, 1953), s.a. 6368-6370 (860-862) and 6388-6390 (880-882); wording as reproduced in the edited student selection SLA 218, Univ. of Toronto](https://tarnawsky.artsci.utoronto.ca/elul/English/218/PVL-selections.pdf)
- [Povest' vremennykh let, Laurentian text (Old East Slavic), in D. S. Likhachev (ed.), Povest' vremennykh let, vol. 1 (Moscow-Leningrad, 1950), under the year given in the quote's entry; OCR text, orthography as printed [entry 6370; the entries 6368 and 6369 before it are empty in this text]](https://archive.org/details/povest-vremennyh-let-tom-1-1950)
- [The Anglo-Saxon Chronicle, tr. J. Ingram (with J. A. Giles), Project Gutenberg eBook #657 (public-domain 19th-century translation), entry, s.a. 851](https://www.gutenberg.org/cache/epub/657/pg657.txt)
- [The Anglo-Saxon Chronicle, tr. J. Ingram (with J. A. Giles), Project Gutenberg eBook #657 (public-domain 19th-century translation), entry, s.a. 994](https://www.gutenberg.org/cache/epub/657/pg657.txt)
- [The Anglo-Saxon Chronicle, tr. J. Ingram (with J. A. Giles), Project Gutenberg eBook #657 (public-domain 19th-century translation), entry, s.a. 854](https://www.gutenberg.org/cache/epub/657/pg657.txt)
- [The Anglo-Saxon Chronicle, tr. J. Ingram (with J. A. Giles), Project Gutenberg eBook #657 (public-domain 19th-century translation), entry, s.a. 865](https://www.gutenberg.org/cache/epub/657/pg657.txt)
- [Annales Cambriae (A text), English translation, Wikisource 'The Annals of Wales A', entry, entry 853](https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/The_Annals_of_Wales_A)
- [Annals of Ulster (to AD 1131), ed. and tr. Seán Mac Airt and Gearóid Mac Niocaill (Dublin 1983), CELT edition T100001A, entry, entry U856.6](https://celt.ucc.ie/published/T100001A.html)
- [Annales Cambriae (A text), English translation, Wikisource 'The Annals of Wales A', entry, entry 877](https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/The_Annals_of_Wales_A)
- [Annales Bertiniani, ed. G. Waitz, MGH Scriptores rerum Germanicarum in usum scholarum 5, Hannover 1883 (Prudentius of Troyes to 861, Hincmar of Reims from 861), entry for 853](https://archive.org/details/annalesbertinian00wait)
- [Annales Bertiniani, ed. G. Waitz, MGH Scriptores rerum Germanicarum in usum scholarum 5, Hannover 1883 (Prudentius of Troyes to 861, Hincmar of Reims from 861), entry for 854](https://archive.org/details/annalesbertinian00wait)
- [Annales Bertiniani, ed. G. Waitz, MGH Scriptores rerum Germanicarum in usum scholarum 5, Hannover 1883 (Prudentius of Troyes to 861, Hincmar of Reims from 861), entry for 873](https://archive.org/details/annalesbertinian00wait)
- [Annales Bertiniani, ed. G. Waitz, MGH Scriptores rerum Germanicarum in usum scholarum 5, Hannover 1883 (Prudentius of Troyes to 861, Hincmar of Reims from 861), entry for 856](https://archive.org/details/annalesbertinian00wait)
- [Annales Bertiniani, ed. G. Waitz, MGH Scriptores rerum Germanicarum in usum scholarum 5, Hannover 1883 (Prudentius of Troyes to 861, Hincmar of Reims from 861), entry for 858, editors' note 2, quoting a Chartres cartulary](https://archive.org/details/annalesbertinian00wait)
- [Annales Bertiniani, ed. G. Waitz, MGH Scriptores rerum Germanicarum in usum scholarum 5, Hannover 1883 (Prudentius of Troyes to 861, Hincmar of Reims from 861), entry for 858, editors' note 2, quoting a Chartres necrology](https://archive.org/details/annalesbertinian00wait)
- [Flodoard of Reims, Historia Remensis ecclesiae, Patrologia Latina 135 (Migne), text as transcribed on Latin Wikisource, Book IV, ch. 14](https://la.wikisource.org/wiki/Historia_ecclesiae_Remensis_(Flodoardus_Remensis))
- [Dudo of Saint-Quentin, De moribus et actis primorum Normanniae ducum, ed. J. Lair, Caen 1865 (Memoires de la Societe des Antiquaires de Normandie), Book II, ch. 22-23](https://archive.org/details/demoribusetacti00dudogoog)
- [Dudo of Saint-Quentin, De moribus et actis primorum Normanniae ducum, ed. J. Lair, Caen 1865 (Memoires de la Societe des Antiquaires de Normandie), Book II, ch. 23](https://archive.org/details/demoribusetacti00dudogoog)
- [J. Lair, editor's introduction/commentary in Dudo, De moribus..., Caen 1865, note to Book II, ch. 23](https://archive.org/details/demoribusetacti00dudogoog)
- [R. Dozy, 'Recherches sur l'histoire et la litterature de l'Espagne pendant le moyen age', 3rd ed., tome II, Paris/Leyde, 1881, chapter 'Les Normands en Espagne' (sections I-V); Dozy translates Arabic passages (Ibn Idhari, al-Nuwayri, Ibn al-Qutiyya, Ibn Dihya); section III 'Invasions de 858-861', Dozy on Ibn Idhari's source](https://archive.org/details/recherchessurlhi02dozyuoft)
- [R. Dozy, 'Recherches sur l'histoire et la litterature de l'Espagne pendant le moyen age', 3rd ed., tome II, Paris/Leyde, 1881, chapter 'Les Normands en Espagne' (sections I-V); Dozy translates Arabic passages (Ibn Idhari, al-Nuwayri, Ibn al-Qutiyya, Ibn Dihya); section III 'Invasions de 858-861', on al-Nuwayri](https://archive.org/details/recherchessurlhi02dozyuoft)
- [R. Dozy, 'Recherches sur l'histoire et la litterature de l'Espagne pendant le moyen age', 3rd ed., tome II, Paris/Leyde, 1881, chapter 'Les Normands en Espagne' (sections I-V); Dozy translates Arabic passages (Ibn Idhari, al-Nuwayri, Ibn al-Qutiyya, Ibn Dihya); section III 'Invasions de 858-861', on Rodrigo of Toledo and Werlauff](https://archive.org/details/recherchessurlhi02dozyuoft)
- [Cronica de Alfonso III, ed. Z. Garcia Villada, Madrid 1918 (Latin text; Rotense/'redaccion primitiva' and 'segunda redaccion' ad Sebastianum); Redaccion primitiva, ed. p. 84](https://archive.org/details/cronicadealfons00alfo)
- [Cronica de Alfonso III, ed. Z. Garcia Villada, Madrid 1918 (Latin text; Rotense/'redaccion primitiva' and 'segunda redaccion' ad Sebastianum); critical apparatus to p. 84, line 14](https://archive.org/details/cronicadealfons00alfo)
- [Ibn Idhari al-Marrakushi, al-Bayan al-Mughrib, French trans. E. Fagnan, 'Histoire de l'Afrique et de l'Espagne intitulee Al-Bayano'l-Mogrib', vol. I (North Africa), Alger, 1901 (date per archive.org metadata); printed p. 249 (year printed as '214' in the scan)](https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_MiyHAAAAMAAJ)
- [R. Dozy, 'Recherches sur l'histoire et la litterature de l'Espagne pendant le moyen age', 3rd ed., tome II, Paris/Leyde, 1881, chapter 'Les Normands en Espagne' (sections I-V); Dozy translates Arabic passages (Ibn Idhari, al-Nuwayri, Ibn al-Qutiyya, Ibn Dihya); section III 'Invasions de 858-861', correcting Ibn al-Qutiyya](https://archive.org/details/recherchessurlhi02dozyuoft)
- [R. Dozy, 'Recherches sur l'histoire et la litterature de l'Espagne pendant le moyen age', 3rd ed., tome II, Paris/Leyde, 1881, chapter 'Les Normands en Espagne' (sections I-V); Dozy translates Arabic passages (Ibn Idhari, al-Nuwayri, Ibn al-Qutiyya, Ibn Dihya); section III 'Invasions de 858-861', translation of al-Nuwayri](https://archive.org/details/recherchessurlhi02dozyuoft)
- [Annales Bertiniani (Annals of St-Bertin), ed. G. Waitz, MGH SS rer. Germ., Hannover 1883; entries by Prudentius of Troyes (to 861) and Hincmar; entry s.a. 859 (Prudentius)](https://archive.org/details/annalesbertinian00wait)
- [R. Dozy, 'Recherches sur l'histoire et la litterature de l'Espagne pendant le moyen age', 3rd ed., tome II, Paris/Leyde, 1881, chapter 'Les Normands en Espagne' (sections I-V); Dozy translates Arabic passages (Ibn Idhari, al-Nuwayri, Ibn al-Qutiyya, Ibn Dihya); section III 'Invasions de 858-861'](https://archive.org/details/recherchessurlhi02dozyuoft)
- [Annales Bertiniani, ed. G. Waitz, MGH Scriptores rerum Germanicarum in usum scholarum 5, Hannover 1883 (Prudentius of Troyes to 861, Hincmar of Reims from 861), entry for 859](https://archive.org/details/annalesbertinian00wait)
- [Annales Bertiniani, ed. G. Waitz, MGH Scriptores rerum Germanicarum in usum scholarum 5, Hannover 1883 (Prudentius of Troyes to 861, Hincmar of Reims from 861), entry for 860](https://archive.org/details/annalesbertinian00wait)
- [Dudo of Saint-Quentin, 'De moribus et actis primorum Normanniae ducum', ed. J. Lair, Caen 1865 (Latin text plus Lair's French introduction and notes); Book on Hasting, ed. Lair pp. 133-135](https://archive.org/details/demoribusetacti00dudogoog)
- [Dudo of Saint-Quentin, 'De moribus et actis primorum Normanniae ducum', ed. J. Lair, Caen 1865 (Latin text plus Lair's French introduction and notes); Book on Hasting, ed. Lair p. 135](https://archive.org/details/demoribusetacti00dudogoog)
- [William of Jumieges, 'Histoire des Normands', French trans. F. Guizot, Book I, as reproduced on remacle.org; Book I, chapter on the storm at Luna](https://remacle.org/bloodwolf/historiens/guillaumejumiege/normands1.htm)
- [William of Jumieges, 'Histoire des Normands', French trans. F. Guizot, Book I, as reproduced on remacle.org; Book I, chapter X heading](https://remacle.org/bloodwolf/historiens/guillaumejumiege/normands1.htm)
- [Dudo of Saint-Quentin, 'De moribus et actis primorum Normanniae ducum', ed. J. Lair, Caen 1865 (Latin text plus Lair's French introduction and notes); Lair's introduction, note on the date of Dudo's work](https://archive.org/details/demoribusetacti00dudogoog)
- [Annales Bertiniani (Annals of St-Bertin), ed. G. Waitz, MGH SS rer. Germ., Hannover 1883; entries by Prudentius of Troyes (to 861) and Hincmar; entry s.a. 849](https://archive.org/details/annalesbertinian00wait)
- [Annales Bertiniani (Annals of St-Bertin), ed. G. Waitz, MGH SS rer. Germ., Hannover 1883; entries by Prudentius of Troyes (to 861) and Hincmar; entry s.a. 860 (Prudentius)](https://archive.org/details/annalesbertinian00wait)
- [The Anglo-Saxon Chronicle, tr. J. Ingram (with J. A. Giles), Project Gutenberg eBook #657 (public-domain 19th-century translation), entry, s.a. 867](https://www.gutenberg.org/cache/epub/657/pg657.txt)
- [Annals of Ulster (to AD 1131), ed. and tr. Seán Mac Airt and Gearóid Mac Niocaill (Dublin 1983), CELT edition T100001A, entry, entry U867.7](https://celt.ucc.ie/published/T100001A.html)
- [Annales Cambriae (A text), English translation, Wikisource 'The Annals of Wales A', entry, entry 866](https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/The_Annals_of_Wales_A)
- [Chris Tuckley, 'Coppergate memories: remembering York's revolutionary Viking dig', Current Archaeology (York Archaeological Trust project), excavation 1976-81](https://archaeology.co.uk/articles/features/coppergate-memories-remembering-yorks-revolutionary-viking-dig.htm)
- [York Archaeological Trust online collections, 'Jorvik Viking Centre' description page, Jorvik Viking Centre description](https://collections.yorkarchaeologicaltrust.co.uk/s/collections/item/24124)
- [The Anglo-Saxon Chronicle, tr. J. Ingram (with J. A. Giles), Project Gutenberg eBook #657 (public-domain 19th-century translation), entry, s.a. 952](https://www.gutenberg.org/cache/epub/657/pg657.txt)
- [The Anglo-Saxon Chronicle, tr. J. Ingram (with J. A. Giles), Project Gutenberg eBook #657 (public-domain 19th-century translation), entry, s.a. 954](https://www.gutenberg.org/cache/epub/657/pg657.txt)
- [The Anglo-Saxon Chronicle, tr. J. Ingram (with J. A. Giles), Project Gutenberg eBook #657 (public-domain 19th-century translation), entry, s.a. 868](https://www.gutenberg.org/cache/epub/657/pg657.txt)
- [Annals of Ulster (to AD 1131), ed. and tr. Seán Mac Airt and Gearóid Mac Niocaill (Dublin 1983), CELT edition T100001A, entry, entry U870.6](https://celt.ucc.ie/published/T100001A.html)
- [Annals of Ulster (to AD 1131), ed. and tr. Seán Mac Airt and Gearóid Mac Niocaill (Dublin 1983), CELT edition T100001A, entry, entry U871.2](https://celt.ucc.ie/published/T100001A.html)
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- [Ari Thorgilsson, Islendingabok (c. 1122-33), English translation on Wikisource ('Translation:Islendingabok'), chapter 1](https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Translation:%C3%8Dslendingab%C3%B3k)
- [The Anglo-Saxon Chronicle, tr. J. Ingram (with J. A. Giles), Project Gutenberg eBook #657 (public-domain 19th-century translation), entry, s.a. 871](https://www.gutenberg.org/cache/epub/657/pg657.txt)
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- [Landnamabok (Sturlubok version), part 1 (Old Norse text), heimskringla.no, chapter on Ingolfr's voyage](https://heimskringla.no/wiki/Landn%C3%A1mab%C3%B3k_-_Fyrsti_hluti)
- [Landnamabok (Sturlubok version), part 1 (Old Norse text), heimskringla.no, chapter on Ingolfr](https://heimskringla.no/wiki/Landn%C3%A1mab%C3%B3k_-_Fyrsti_hluti)
- [The Anglo-Saxon Chronicle, tr. J. Ingram (with J. A. Giles), Project Gutenberg eBook #657 (public-domain 19th-century translation), entry, s.a. 873](https://www.gutenberg.org/cache/epub/657/pg657.txt)
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- [Dawn M. Hadley and Julian D. Richards, 'The winter camp of the Viking Great Army, AD 872-3, Torksey, Lincolnshire', The Antiquaries Journal 96 (2016), 23-67, doi:10.1017/S0003581516000718 (open access), finds section](https://eprints.whiterose.ac.uk/id/eprint/100285/10/the-winter-camp-of-the-viking-great-army-ad-872-3-torksey-lincolnshire.pdf)
- [The Anglo-Saxon Chronicle, tr. J. Ingram (with J. A. Giles), Project Gutenberg eBook #657 (public-domain 19th-century translation), entry, s.a. 874](https://www.gutenberg.org/cache/epub/657/pg657.txt)
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- [Catrine L. Jarman et al., 'The Viking Great Army in England: new dates from the Repton charnel', Antiquity 92 (361), 2018, 183-199, doi:10.15184/aqy.2017.196 (open access), Background](https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/antiquity/article/viking-great-army-in-england-new-dates-from-the-repton-charnel/30DFE4A0D5581DEBC8B43096A37985EE)
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- [The Anglo-Saxon Chronicle, tr. J. Ingram (with J. A. Giles), Project Gutenberg eBook #657 (public-domain 19th-century translation), entry, s.a. 877](https://www.gutenberg.org/cache/epub/657/pg657.txt)
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- [Asser, Life of King Alfred, tr. Albert S. Cook (1906), Project Gutenberg #63384, chapter, chapter 56](https://www.gutenberg.org/cache/epub/63384/pg63384.txt)
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- [Annales Bertiniani, ed. G. Waitz, MGH Scriptores rerum Germanicarum in usum scholarum 5, Hannover 1883 (Prudentius of Troyes to 861, Hincmar of Reims from 861), entry for 880](https://archive.org/details/annalesbertinian00wait)
- [Annales Vedastini (Annals of Saint-Vaast), ed. B. von Simson, MGH SS rer. Germ. 12, Hannover 1909, entry for 881](https://archive.org/details/annalesxantense12v13sims)
- [Annales Vedastini (Annals of Saint-Vaast), ed. B. von Simson, MGH SS rer. Germ. 12, Hannover 1909, entry for 880](https://archive.org/details/annalesxantense12v13sims)
- [Annales Vedastini (Annals of Saint-Vaast), ed. B. von Simson, MGH SS rer. Germ. 12, Hannover 1909, entry for 881 (raid of late December 880)](https://archive.org/details/annalesxantense12v13sims)
- [Annales Vedastini (Annals of Saint-Vaast), ed. B. von Simson, MGH SS rer. Germ. 12, Hannover 1909, entry for 881 (second visit)](https://archive.org/details/annalesxantenses00sims)
- [Annales Fuldenses, ed. F. Kurze, MGH SS rer. Germ. 7, Hannover 1891, entry for 880](https://archive.org/details/annalesfuldenses00einhuoft)
- [Annales Fuldenses, ed. F. Kurze, MGH SS rer. Germ. 7, Hannover 1891, entry for 881](https://archive.org/details/annalesfuldenses00einhuoft)
- [Annales Vedastini (Annals of Saint-Vaast), ed. B. von Simson, MGH SS rer. Germ. 12, Hannover 1909, entry for 882](https://archive.org/details/annalesxantense12v13sims)
- [Annales Fuldenses, ed. F. Kurze, MGH SS rer. Germ. 7, Hannover 1891, entry for 882](https://archive.org/details/annalesfuldenses00einhuoft)
- [Regino of Prum, Chronicon, ed. F. Kurze, MGH SS rer. Germ. 50, Hannover 1890, entry for 882 (Godofrid asks for Frisia)](https://archive.org/details/reginonisabbatis00regiuoft)
- [Regino of Prum, Chronicon, ed. F. Kurze, MGH SS rer. Germ. 50, Hannover 1890, entry for 882](https://archive.org/details/reginonisabbatis00regiuoft)
- ["De Vikingen in Hasloa aan de Maas", Historiehuis Maasvallei (local-history site; summarises the Asselt vs Elsloo debate)](https://historiehuismaasvallei.nl/kenniscentrum/vikingen-in-elsloo)
- ["Maas geeft geheimen prijs", elsloo.info (reprinting the text of the Heerlen archaeological depot De Vondst on the Grensmaas finds)](https://elsloo.info/historie-nieuws/2710-maas-geeft-geheimen-prijs)
- [Annales Bertiniani, ed. G. Waitz, MGH Scriptores rerum Germanicarum in usum scholarum 5, Hannover 1883 (Prudentius of Troyes to 861, Hincmar of Reims from 861), entry for 881](https://archive.org/details/annalesbertinian00wait)
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- [Constantine VII Porphyrogenitus, De Administrando Imperio, ed. Gy. Moravcsik, tr. R. J. H. Jenkins (Corpus Fontium Historiae Byzantinae 1, Washington DC, 1967), ch. 9 'Of the coming of the Russians in monoxyla from Russia to Constantinople'](https://archive.org/details/cfhb-01-constantine-vii-de-administrando-imperio)
- [Wladyslaw Duczko, Viking Rus. Studies on the Presence of Scandinavians in Eastern Europe (The Northern World 12; Leiden: Brill, 2004), section as headed in the raw file [Duczko on Kyiv objects contemporary with Askold, Dir, Oleg and Igor]](https://www.cesecom.it/backoffice/media/handlerObject.ashx?id=256%7Cn)
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- [R. J. H. Jenkins (ed.) and others, Constantine Porphyrogenitus, De Administrando Imperio, vol. 2: Commentary (London: Athlone Press, 1962), commentary on ch. 9, by line (9/xx) as printed [commentary on 9/57-8 (fifth rapid)]](https://archive.org/details/dli.ernet.168258)
- [R. J. H. Jenkins (ed.) and others, Constantine Porphyrogenitus, De Administrando Imperio, vol. 2: Commentary (London: Athlone Press, 1962), commentary on ch. 9, by line (9/xx) as printed [commentary on 9/64 (seventh rapid)]](https://archive.org/details/dli.ernet.168258)
- [R. J. H. Jenkins (ed.) and others, Constantine Porphyrogenitus, De Administrando Imperio, vol. 2: Commentary (London: Athlone Press, 1962), commentary on ch. 9, by line (9/xx) as printed](https://archive.org/details/dli.ernet.168258)
- [Povest' vremennykh let, Laurentian text (Old East Slavic), in D. S. Likhachev (ed.), Povest' vremennykh let, vol. 1 (Moscow-Leningrad, 1950), under the year given in the quote's entry; OCR text, orthography as printed [entry 6480 (972); OCR text with ф for ѣ]](https://archive.org/details/povest-vremennyh-let-tom-1-1950)
- [Leo the Deacon, Historia, ed. C. B. Hase (Corpus Scriptorum Historiae Byzantinae, Bonn, 1828), Greek text with Latin translation, pages as printed (p. 135 Sphengelos; p. 149 Ikmor and the Danube rites; pp. 156-157 the meeting on the Danube) [the ambush "on the way back", no place named]](https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_GCMAAAAAYAAJ)
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- [R. J. H. Jenkins (ed.) and others, Constantine Porphyrogenitus, De Administrando Imperio, vol. 2: Commentary (London: Athlone Press, 1962), commentary on ch. 9, by line (9/xx) as printed [commentary on 9/82]](https://archive.org/details/dli.ernet.168258)
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- [Povest' vremennykh let, Laurentian text (Old East Slavic), in D. S. Likhachev (ed.), Povest' vremennykh let, vol. 1 (Moscow-Leningrad, 1950), under the year given in the quote's entry; OCR text, orthography as printed [entry 6477 (969); OCR text with stray footnote marks]](https://archive.org/details/povest-vremennyh-let-tom-1-1950)
- [Dumbarton Oaks Byzantine Seals, BZS.1951.31.5.860 (seal of Leo Pegonites, strategos of Presthlavitza), commentary](https://www.doaks.org/resources/seals/byzantine-seals/BZS.1951.31.5.860)
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- [H. Florez, 'Espana Sagrada', tomo XIV (Latin texts: Chronicon de Sampiro; Chronicon Lusitanum), scan on archive.org; Chronicon de Sampiro, printed p. 471](https://archive.org/details/espaasagradathea14flre)
- [Historia Silense, ed. F. Santos Coco, Madrid 1921 (Latin; early 12th century; reuses Sampiro's chronicle); chapter on Ramiro III, ed. p. 57](https://archive.org/details/historiasilens00sant)
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- [Leo the Deacon, Historia, ed. C. B. Hase (Corpus Scriptorum Historiae Byzantinae, Bonn, 1828), Greek text with Latin translation, pages as printed (p. 135 Sphengelos; p. 149 Ikmor and the Danube rites; pp. 156-157 the meeting on the Danube) [the earring]](https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_GCMAAAAAYAAJ)
- [Leo the Deacon, Historia, ed. C. B. Hase (Corpus Scriptorum Historiae Byzantinae, Bonn, 1828), Greek text with Latin translation, pages as printed (p. 135 Sphengelos; p. 149 Ikmor and the Danube rites; pp. 156-157 the meeting on the Danube) [the white garment]](https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_GCMAAAAAYAAJ)
- [Povest' vremennykh let, Laurentian text (Old East Slavic), in D. S. Likhachev (ed.), Povest' vremennykh let, vol. 1 (Moscow-Leningrad, 1950), under the year given in the quote's entry; OCR text, orthography as printed [treaty header, entry 6479 (971)]](https://archive.org/details/povest-vremennyh-let-tom-1-1950)
- [Leo the Deacon, Historia, ed. C. B. Hase (Corpus Scriptorum Historiae Byzantinae, Bonn, 1828), Greek text with Latin translation, pages as printed (p. 135 Sphengelos; p. 149 Ikmor and the Danube rites; pp. 156-157 the meeting on the Danube) [22,000 men fed with grain]](https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_GCMAAAAAYAAJ)
- [Leo the Deacon, Historia, ed. C. B. Hase (Corpus Scriptorum Historiae Byzantinae, Bonn, 1828), Greek text with Latin translation, pages as printed (p. 135 Sphengelos; p. 149 Ikmor and the Danube rites; pp. 156-157 the meeting on the Danube) [38,000 killed]](https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_GCMAAAAAYAAJ)
- [Povest' vremennykh let, Laurentian text (Old East Slavic), in D. S. Likhachev (ed.), Povest' vremennykh let, vol. 1 (Moscow-Leningrad, 1950), under the year given in the quote's entry; OCR text, orthography as printed [Svyatoslav's count in entry 6479]](https://archive.org/details/povest-vremennyh-let-tom-1-1950)
- [Povest' vremennykh let, Laurentian text (Old East Slavic), in D. S. Likhachev (ed.), Povest' vremennykh let, vol. 1 (Moscow-Leningrad, 1950), under the year given in the quote's entry; OCR text, orthography as printed [the Greeks' count in entry 6479]](https://archive.org/details/povest-vremennyh-let-tom-1-1950)
- [Adam of Bremen, Gesta Hammaburgensis ecclesiae pontificum, ed. B. Schmeidler (3rd ed., Hannover-Leipzig, 1917), as cited in the quote note](https://archive.org/details/adamvonbremenham00adam)
- [Adam of Bremen, Gesta Hammaburgensis ecclesiae pontificum, ed. B. Schmeidler (3rd ed., Hannover-Leipzig, 1917), as cited in the quote note [Lib. II cap. XXVII]](https://archive.org/details/adamvonbremenham00adam)
- [Adam of Bremen, Gesta Hammaburgensis ecclesiae pontificum, ed. B. Schmeidler (3rd ed., Hannover-Leipzig, 1917), as cited in the quote note [editor's note]](https://archive.org/details/adamvonbremenham00adam)
- [The Anglo-Saxon Chronicle, tr. J. Ingram (with J. A. Giles), Project Gutenberg eBook #657 (public-domain 19th-century translation), entry, s.a. 991](https://www.gutenberg.org/cache/epub/657/pg657.txt)
- [H. Florez, 'Espana Sagrada', tomo XIX (dissertation on Bishop Sisnando II; charter of Alfonso V for Tui), scan on archive.org; charter of Alfonso V for Tui, printed p. 391](https://archive.org/details/espaasagradathea19flre)
- [R. Dozy, 'Recherches sur l'histoire et la litterature de l'Espagne pendant le moyen age', 3rd ed., tome II, Paris/Leyde, 1881, chapter 'Les Normands en Espagne' (sections I-V); Dozy translates Arabic passages (Ibn Idhari, al-Nuwayri, Ibn al-Qutiyya, Ibn Dihya); section V 'Expedition de Saint Olaf'](https://archive.org/details/recherchessurlhi02dozyuoft)
- [The Anglo-Saxon Chronicle, tr. J. Ingram (with J. A. Giles), Project Gutenberg eBook #657 (public-domain 19th-century translation), entry, s.a. 1013](https://www.gutenberg.org/cache/epub/657/pg657.txt)
- [H. Florez, 'Espana Sagrada', tomo XIV (Latin texts: Chronicon de Sampiro; Chronicon Lusitanum), scan on archive.org; Chronicon Lusitanum, entry Era 1054](https://archive.org/details/espaasagradathea14flre)
- [The Anglo-Saxon Chronicle, tr. J. Ingram (with J. A. Giles), Project Gutenberg eBook #657 (public-domain 19th-century translation), entry, s.a. 1016](https://www.gutenberg.org/cache/epub/657/pg657.txt)
- [The Anglo-Saxon Chronicle, tr. J. Ingram (with J. A. Giles), Project Gutenberg eBook #657 (public-domain 19th-century translation), entry, s.a. 1017](https://www.gutenberg.org/cache/epub/657/pg657.txt)
- [Wikipedia, 'Piraeus Lion' (lead; background on the removal to Venice)](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Piraeus_Lion)
- [Viking Ship Museum, Roskilde: Skuldelev 5, the find (barrier in Roskilde Fjord)](https://www.vikingeskibsmuseet.dk/en/professions/boatyard/previous-projects/the-vikinge-ship-skuldelev-5/translate-to-english-fundet)
- [Viking Ship Museum, Roskilde: Skuldelev 2](https://www.vikingeskibsmuseet.dk/en/visit-the-museum/exhibitions/the-five-viking-ships/skuldelev-2)
- [Viking Ship Museum, Roskilde: The five Viking ships](https://www.vikingeskibsmuseet.dk/en/visit-the-museum/exhibitions/the-five-viking-ships)
- [Viking Ship Museum, Roskilde: The excavation of the Skuldelev ships (1962)](https://www.vikingeskibsmuseet.dk/en/visit-the-museum/exhibitions/the-five-viking-ships/the-excavation)
- [Viking Ship Museum, Roskilde: Sea Stallion from Glendalough (boat collection)](https://www.vikingeskibsmuseet.dk/en/professions/the-boat-collection/sea-stallion-from-glendalough)
- [The Anglo-Saxon Chronicle, tr. J. Ingram (with J. A. Giles), Project Gutenberg eBook #657 (public-domain 19th-century translation), entry, s.a. 1066](https://www.gutenberg.org/cache/epub/657/pg657.txt)

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Written and mapped by [Marius Comper](https://mariuscomper.uk/en/) · https://mariuscomper.uk/vikingii-in-europa/en/