Ibn Battuta, 1325–1354 ابن بطوطة
He set out for Mecca at 21 and came home 24 years later
Ibn Battuta, a young man from Tangier who had studied Islamic law, reached East Africa, the steppe of the Golden Horde, Constantinople, Delhi, the Maldives, China and Mali. Measured through the places he names, his route runs to almost 109,000 kilometres, about three times Marco Polo's. The stretches historians don't believe are dashed.
The nine journeys
- To Mecca1325–1326
- Iraq, Persia and the years in Mecca1326–1328
- The Red Sea, East Africa and the Gulf1328–1330
- The Golden Horde and Constantinople1330–1332
- Over the Hindu Kush to the court of Delhi1332–1342
- The embassy that was wrecked1342–1345
- China1345–1347
- Home through the Black Death1347–1349
- Granada, the Sahara and Mali1350–1354
route described in the textstretch historians doubt
From Tangier to China, from Kilwa to the Volga
In June 1325 Ibn Battuta left Tangier alone to make the pilgrimage to Mecca. He was not back in Morocco until November 1349, and within months he set off again: to Granada, then across the Sahara to Mali. He dictated the story in Fez to a scholar at the sultan's court, Ibn Juzayy, who finished the text in December 1355. The book is known for short as the Rihla, “The Journey”.
The map follows the route as you read. The solid line runs through the places the text names, in the order it names them. The dashed line marks the stretches historians don't believe; each chapter says why. Distances are measured through the same places, so the real journey was longer.
The book's dates don't always agree with one another. For 1328–1332 the chapters follow the historian Ross Dunn's chronology; on the text's own dates, the same journeys would fall two years later.
Chapter I
To Mecca
1325–1326
- Years
- 1325–1326
- Distance on the map
- 9,300 kmat least, through the places named
- By way of
- Tangier, Tlemcen, Algiers, Béjaïa, Constantine, Tunis, Sfax, Tripoli, Alexandria, Cairo, Luxor, Aydhab, Gaza, Jerusalem, Beirut, Aleppo, Latakia, Damascus, Tabuk, Medina, Mecca
On 14 June 1325 (2 Rajab 725) Ibn Battuta rode out of Tangier alone, with no caravan. His parents were alive, and the parting, he writes, made them all ill. He says he was 22. Ibn Juzayy records, though, that he was born on 24 February 1304, which makes him 21: even by the lunar calendar he counted in, he was two weeks short of 22.
He was not alone for long. At Miliana he caught up with two envoys from Tunis, then joined a merchant caravan. He had a fever, and after Annaba he tied himself to the saddle with his turban so as not to fall. The caravan chose him as its judge, and by Alexandria, which he reached on 5 April 1326, he had married twice.
From Egypt he meant to cross the Red Sea through the port of Aydhab, but the ruler of the local Beja had sunk the Mamluks' ships, so he went back to Cairo and took the road through Syria. He entered Damascus in August 1326, left with the pilgrim caravan on 1 September, and made his first pilgrimage to Mecca in November.
Many of the pages on Damascus, Medina and Mecca are not his. Ibn Juzayy copied whole passages from the journal of Ibn Jubayr, a pilgrim from al-Andalus who had passed that way almost a century and a half earlier, “more often without saying so”, as the text's French editors noted in 1853.
In his words
I was alone, without a companion I could be at ease with, and without a caravan I could join.
Chapter II
Iraq, Persia and the years in Mecca
1326–1328
- Years
- 1326–1328
- Distance on the map
- 7,500 kmat least, through the places named
- By way of
- Najaf, Basra, Isfahan, Shiraz, Baghdad, Tabriz, Mosul, Mardin
After his first pilgrimage he did not go home. He left Mecca with the Iraqi caravan in November 1326 and crossed Arabia to Najaf.
At Friday prayers in Basra the preacher made grammatical mistakes anyone would have noticed. Ibn Battuta complained to the city's judge, who told him nobody in Basra knew grammar any more. Arabic grammar, he goes on, had been born in Basra itself.
He climbed into the Zagros mountains to Isfahan and Shiraz, returned to Baghdad, and travelled ten days with the camp of the Ilkhan Abu Said and ten more to Tabriz, where he stayed a single night. From there he went on to Mosul and Mardin.
His second stay in Mecca was much longer. The text records the pilgrimages of the Hijri years 727, 728, 729 and 730 (1327–1330) and says he lived in the city for three years. Ross Dunn thinks he left earlier, in 1328: otherwise the journeys that follow don't fit the dates in the rest of the book.
In his words
In this city there is no one left who knows anything of grammar.
Chapter III
The Red Sea, East Africa and the Gulf
1328–1330
- Years
- 1328–1330
- Distance on the map
- 12,800 kmat least, through the places named, of which 500 km dashed
- By way of
- Jeddah, Suakin, Zabid, Taiz, Sanaa, Aden, Zeila, Mogadishu, Mombasa, Kilwa, Dhofar, Qalhat, Hormuz, Bahrain
Dashed: Sanaa. The text gives the journey there a single sentence, and Ross Dunn thinks the visit may be as invented as the one to Bulgar.
At Jeddah he refused to board a sharif's ship because camels had been loaded onto it and he had, he writes, never crossed the sea. The boat he took instead ran into a storm and put in on the African coast between Aydhab and Suakin, where they drank water from ostrich eggshells.
From Yemen he crossed to Zeila, then sailed fifteen days down the coast to Mogadishu. Young men rowed out to every ship and each chose a merchant as his guest. The sultan fed him three times a day for three days: rice with butter, bananas cooked in milk, pickled lemons, green ginger and mangoes.
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At Mombasa he stayed one night. At Kilwa he watched Sultan Hasan give away the clothes he was wearing to a Yemeni fakir who asked for them as he left prayers. The town, Ibn Battuta writes, was built entirely of wood.
He sailed back to Dhofar, walked to Qalhat in Oman with a guide who, he believed, meant to drown him and steal his clothes, then passed through Hormuz and Bahrain and came back to Mecca.
In his words
The greatest gift bestowed by the people of these countries is ivory, which is the elephant's tooth: they seldom give gold.
Chapter IV
The Golden Horde and Constantinople
1330–1332
- Years
- 1330–1332
- Distance on the map
- 15,100 kmat least, through the places named, of which 3,300 km dashed
- By way of
- Alanya, Konya, Sivas, Erzurum, Izmir, Bursa, Sinope, Kaffa (Feodosia), Azov, Özbeg Khan's camp, Bulgar, Astrakhan, Baba Saltuk, Byzantine frontier (Yambol?), Constantinople, Sarai
Dashed: the journey to Bulgar on the Volga, which historians generally agree was invented, and the detour through eastern Anatolia to Erzurum, which Gibb found hard to believe. After Erzurum the text jumps straight to western Anatolia without saying how he got there.
From a Syrian port he sailed on a Genoese ship to Anatolia, travelled from town to town, from Konya to Bursa, and crossed the Black Sea from Sinope to Crimea.
On the steppe north of the Caucasus he found the camp of Özbeg, khan of the Golden Horde, which he describes as “a great city on the move with its inhabitants”, with mosques and bazaars. At audiences the khan's wives sat beside him unveiled, and he stood up as each one came in.
One of them, Bayalun, was, he says, the daughter of the Byzantine emperor, and she asked leave to give birth at home. Ibn Battuta got permission to go with her. They entered Constantinople with the bells ringing. He stayed a month and six days, but did not go inside Hagia Sophia: a former emperor turned monk told him that anyone who entered had to bow before the cross.
Between the steppe and Byzantium the princess's caravan passed through a town he calls Baba Saltuk, “the last town of the Turks”, and then spent eighteen days in an empty wilderness, eight of them without water. Turkish tradition places the tomb of the saint Sarı Saltuk at Babadag, in Dobruja, in today's Romania. H. A. R. Gibb, the Rihla's English translator, thought the town in the text lay further east, near the Dnieper, and put the Byzantine frontier at Yambol, in today's Bulgaria. The map draws Gibb's reading, and the line between those two points crosses the Danube at its mouth and runs through Dobruja. The text itself says nothing about the way the caravan took: between the last Turkish town and the Byzantine frontier it counts only days of wilderness.
He came back in the depth of winter, wearing three fur coats and three pairs of boots, and his companions had to lift him onto his horse.
In his words
When I washed my face, the water froze as it touched my beard, and if I shook my beard a kind of snow fell from it.
Chapter V
Over the Hindu Kush to the court of Delhi
1332–1342
- Years
- 1332–1342
- Distance on the map
- 8,200 kmat least, through the places named, of which 2,500 km dashed
- By way of
- Urgench, Bukhara, Samarkand, Balkh, Herat, Mashhad, Kunduz, Hindu Kush pass, Kabul, Sehwan, Multan, Delhi
Dashed: the detour through Khurasan to Herat and Mashhad, which Gibb called “highly suspect”. The French editors called the westward swing to Bistam “quite improbable”.
From Sarai, the capital of the Golden Horde, he spent thirty days crossing the desert to Khwarazm, then went on to Bukhara, which he found still in ruins after Genghis Khan, and to Samarkand. He crossed the Hindu Kush, whose name he explains as “Hindu-killer”, because slaves brought from India died of cold there. They laid felt in front of the camels to keep them from sinking into the snow.
He reached the Indus, he writes, on 12 September 1333. The French editors showed that the date clashes with the book's other dates, which keep him in Anatolia and on the steppe until 1334. That is where the two years between the chronologies come from.
Delhi was ruled by Muhammad ibn Tughluq. The sultan made him a judge of the capital, with 12,000 silver dinars a year and villages to live off, and when Ibn Battuta ran up debts of 55,000 dinars, the sultan paid them.
The same sultan had moved Delhi's inhabitants to Daulatabad, forty days' march away, and Ibn Battuta writes that he found the city “empty, abandoned”. In December 1341, out of favour, he withdrew to a hermitage to pray. The sultan called him back and in the summer of 1342 sent him as ambassador to the emperor of China.
In his words
Of all men, Muhammad is the one who most loves to give presents and to shed blood.
Chapter VI
The embassy that was wrecked
1342–1345
- Years
- 1342–1345
- Distance on the map
- 13,200 kmat least, through the places named
- By way of
- Koil (Aligarh), Daulatabad, Cambay, Honavar, Calicut, Quilon, Malé, Puttalam, Adam's Peak, Madurai, Chittagong
The embassy left Delhi on 22 July 1342 with a hundred horses, a hundred slaves, a hundred singing and dancing girls and fifteen Chinese envoys. Near Koil, Ibn Battuta was captured by a band of Hindus and escaped after a week of wandering, helped by a man he calls “the joyful heart”.
At Calicut, on the Malabar coast, the gifts were loaded onto a junk and his people and goods onto a smaller ship. He stayed ashore for Friday prayers. That night the sea threw the junk onto the rocks and everyone aboard died. The small ship sailed without him. He was left with ten gold coins and his prayer rug.
He went on to the Maldives, where he stayed a year and a half and served as a judge. He had four wives. He had a thief's hand cut off and men who missed Friday prayers beaten, but could not persuade the women, who went bare-breasted, to cover up.
He left after a quarrel with the viziers, climbed Adam's Peak in Ceylon holding on to chains fixed in the rock, was robbed by pirates who left him nothing but his drawers, and after a second visit to the Maldives sailed 43 days to Bengal.
In his words
I truly envied this man, and wished that, had his island been mine, I might retire to it until the end that no one escapes.
Chapter VII
China
1345–1347
- Years
- 1345–1347
- Distance on the map
- 21,400 kmat least, through the places named, of which 4,000 km dashed
- By way of
- Sylhet, Sonargaon, Samudra (Sumatra), Quanzhou (Zaytun), Guangzhou, Hangzhou, Beijing
Dashed: everything north of Quanzhou. Henry Yule doubted “whether he ever reached Peking at all”, and Ross Dunn thinks it highly unlikely he travelled north of Hangzhou, “if that far”.
From Bengal he went up into the hills to see a holy man, Shaykh Jalal al-Din, who gave him a goat-hair cloak, then sailed for Sumatra, where the sultan of Samudra held legal debates after Friday prayers.
He landed at Zaytun, that is Quanzhou. In China, he writes, porcelain cost what pottery costs at home, people paid with pieces of paper the size of a palm stamped with the sultan's seal, and a hen was too big for one pot. Nowhere was safer for a traveller: you could go alone for nine months carrying treasure and fear nothing.
After Quanzhou the story becomes hard to believe. He says he spent 64 days on rivers and canals to Khanbaliq, that is Beijing, that the emperor was away fighting a cousin, and that he was killed and buried with four slave girls and six mamluks. Toghon Temür in fact reigned until 1368, and Yule found nothing in the Chinese chronicles that could have given rise to the story. Elsewhere in the book, Ibn Battuta says he went inside the palace.
He sailed back through Sumatra and Calicut and reached Dhofar, in Arabia, in April or May 1347.
In his words
China, beautiful as it was, did not please me. On the contrary, I was troubled by the thought that paganism ruled in that country.
Chapter VIII
Home through the Black Death
1347–1349
- Years
- 1347–1349
- Distance on the map
- 12,800 kmat least, through the places named
- By way of
- Muscat, Shiraz, Baghdad, Palmyra, Damascus, Aleppo, Gaza, Cairo, Mecca, Djerba, Tunis, Sardinia, Taza, Fez
He passed through Hormuz and Shiraz and reached Baghdad in January 1348. In Damascus he learned that his father had died fifteen years earlier.
In early June 1348, in Aleppo, he heard that more than a thousand people a day were dying of plague in Gaza. In Damascus, he writes, the whole population fasted for three days and walked out in procession: Muslims, Jews with the Torah and Christians with the Gospel. He gives different death tolls in different parts of the book: under 2,000 or 2,400 a day in Damascus, 21,000 or 24,000 in Cairo.
He made one more pilgrimage to Mecca in November 1348, sailed to Tunis and Sardinia, and at Taza learned that his mother too had died of the plague. He entered Fez, the capital of Morocco, on 8 November 1349, 24 years and almost five months after leaving Tangier.
Sultan Abu Inan, he writes, made him forget the majesty of the sultan of Iraq, the beauty of the king of India and the good manners of the king of Yemen.
In his words
In Fez, too, I terminated my travels, after I had assured myself, that it is the most beautiful of countries.
Chapter IX
Granada, the Sahara and Mali
1350–1354
- Years
- 1350–1354
- Distance on the map
- 8,500 kmat least, through the places named
- By way of
- Gibraltar, Granada, Marrakesh, Sijilmasa, Taghaza, Walata, Mali's capital, Timbuktu, Gao, Takedda
He didn't stay long. He crossed the strait at Gibraltar to Granada, and in February 1352 left Sijilmasa, on the edge of the Sahara, with a caravan heading south. At Taghaza, in the middle of the desert, the houses and the mosque were built of blocks of salt and roofed with camel hides.
The caravan paid a man of the Massufa to ride ahead to Walata so that people would come out to meet them with water. Their guide had lost one eye and the other was diseased, yet he knew the way better than anyone. In Walata the women went unveiled and had male friends, which scandalised him.
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He stayed eight months in Mali's capital. Where it stood is still argued over: some historians look for it at Niani, in Guinea, others north of the Niger. Sultan Mansa Sulayman sent him a welcome gift of three loaves, a piece of fried beef and a gourd of curdled milk, and Ibn Battuta laughed. He praised the safety of the roads and the care for the Qur'an: he saw children kept in chains until they had learned it by heart.
On the bank of a branch of the Niger he saw sixteen huge animals he took for elephants: they were hippopotamuses. He passed through Timbuktu and Gao, and at Takedda the Moroccan sultan's order to come home caught up with him. He left Sijilmasa for Fez at the end of December 1353.
In his words
The complete and general safety one enjoys throughout the land. Neither the traveller nor the man who stays at home has anything to fear from brigands, thieves or robbers.
Was he really there?
Ibn Battuta tells every place in the first person. For some, historians have found reasons not to believe him. Guess which.
-
1
Constantinople
He says he entered the city in a Byzantine princess's retinue and spoke with the emperor.
The answer
He went. The French editors and Gibb think the account of the city is an eyewitness's. One detail doesn't fit: the former emperor turned monk he says he met, Andronikos II, had died in February 1332.
-
2
Bulgar, on the Volga
He says he rode ten days from the khan's camp to Bulgar to see how short the nights were.
The answer
Probably not. It is more than 1,300 km from the camp as the crow flies. Janicsek showed in 1929 that the round trip would have taken 60 to 70 days, not 23, and that the description comes from older books.
-
3
The Maldives
He says he was a judge there for a year and a half and married there.
The answer
He went. The stay fills dozens of pages with the names of viziers, islands and wives, and Ross Dunn, who lists the contested parts of the book, does not include the Maldives.
-
4
Beijing
He says he travelled 64 days by water to the Chinese emperor's capital.
The answer
Probably not. The emperor he says was buried went on reigning for two more decades, and his description of the palace seems to Yule to be “from imagination”.
-
5
The Land of Darkness
He describes the land beyond Bulgar where merchants traded furs without ever seeing their partners.
The answer
He didn't go, and says so himself: he wanted to, but gave up “because of the great difficulty of the journey and the little profit it promised”. He had the description from hearsay.
-
6
Sanaa, in Yemen
He says he travelled from Taiz to Sanaa and describes the city.
The answer
Probably not. The journey takes one sentence, and Ross Dunn shows the description is made of stock phrases and wrong information. The historians Hrbek and Chelhod also doubt the visit.
-
7
The capital of Mali
He says he spent eight months at the court of Mansa Sulayman.
The answer
He went. The chapter dates his arrival and departure to the day and names sultans, officials and interpreters. Dunn doesn't list it among the contested parts either. Only the city's location is uncertain.
Pick an answer for each place.
How far he went
Distances are measured on the map along great circles through the places the text names, plus a few points on water so that sea voyages don't cross land. The real journey, with its detours, was longer.
| Chapter | Km on the map | Years |
|---|---|---|
| To Mecca | 9,300 | 1325–1326 |
| Iraq, Persia and the years in Mecca | 7,500 | 1326–1328 |
| The Red Sea, East Africa and the Gulf | 12,800 | 1328–1330 |
| The Golden Horde and Constantinople | 15,100 | 1330–1332 |
| Over the Hindu Kush to the court of Delhi | 8,200 | 1332–1342 |
| The embassy that was wrecked | 13,200 | 1342–1345 |
| China | 21,400 | 1345–1347 |
| Home through the Black Death | 12,800 | 1347–1349 |
| Granada, the Sahara and Mali | 8,500 | 1350–1354 |
| Marco Polo, 1271–1295 | 36,100 | 1271–1295 |
The whole route comes to 108,800 kilometres, more than two and a half times the Earth's circumference at the equator. Without the dashed stretches, 98,600 kilometres remain.
Measured the same way, through the places in Henry Yule's cautious reconstruction, Marco Polo's route between 1271 and 1295 comes to 36,100 kilometres, and Ibn Battuta's is about three times as long. The comparison is with that route: the missions Yule treats as uncertain, such as the one to Champa or the detour through Khurasan, are left out, so Polo's real journey was longer than this.
The figure that usually circulates, 117,000 kilometres, is the metric equivalent of the 73,000 miles Ross Dunn calculated in 1986. Henry Yule had estimated “at least 75,000 English miles”, more than 121,000 kilometres, by “a rough compass measurement”.
What not to take on trust
Ibn Battuta did not write the book himself. He dictated it from memory, almost thirty years after he left Tangier, and says the notes he took at Bukhara were stolen from him at sea by pirates. Historians have read it page by page and found stretches that don't add up.
Bulgar
Stephen Janicsek showed in 1929 that the journey from the khan's camp to Bulgar and back would have taken 60 to 70 days, not the 23 the text allows, that the city itself gets almost no description, and that the short nights and the Land of Darkness already appear in older Arab geographers such as Ibn Fadlan. Gibb called the journey “a complete fiction”, and Dunn writes that historians generally agree.
Beijing
Henry Yule set down the events Ibn Battuta tells in China “as positive fiction” and doubted he ever reached Beijing. Ross Dunn thinks it highly unlikely he went north of Hangzhou. Gabriel Ferrand went further and considered the whole China chapter invented, while Gibb believed it genuine.
Constantinople
The French editors, Defrémery and Sanguinetti, were sure he had been there, but thought his “memory betrayed him” in the details. The former emperor turned monk, Andronikos II, had died in February 1332. They also noted that Byzantine emperors sometimes passed off girls raised at court as princesses, and left Bayalun's own link to the imperial family unresolved.
Sanaa, eastern Anatolia, Khurasan
Dunn puts the visit to Sanaa in the same category as Bulgar. Gibb found the detour to Erzurum hard to credit and the one through Khurasan “highly suspect”. Charles Beckingham also judged some of the journeys in Yemen and Oman not credible.
Copied pages
The descriptions of Damascus, Medina, Mecca, Aleppo and Baghdad take passages from the journal of Ibn Jubayr, a 12th-century pilgrim, and Amikam Elad showed in 1987 that much of the description of Palestine is copied from another traveller, al-Abdari.
The chronology
The book's dates don't fit together. Gibb called them “utterly impossible as it stands”, and Dunn gives two chronologies for 1328–1335. The dates for the Maldives and China don't fit either: Yule calculated that the stay in China has to be shortened by a year.
Who didn't believe him in Fez
The historian Ibn Khaldun tells how, at the court in Fez, people whispered that Ibn Battuta was lying about the gifts of the sultan of Delhi. The vizier Faris ibn Wadrar told him not to deny things about other countries just because he had not seen them.
Sources and method
The Rihla is read in the French translation by Charles Defrémery and Beniamino Sanguinetti (1853–1858), the complete edition that is in the public domain, and checked against Samuel Lee's English translation of 1829, made from an abridgement. Two of the English quotations are Lee's, as marked; the others are translated from the French. H. A. R. Gibb's English translation is cited only for his conclusions.
The route runs through the places the text names, in the text's order, at their modern positions. Where a place cannot be identified with confidence, the map follows the identification of the editors, Yule or Gibb, and unnamed points keep sea routes on water. Distances are sums of great-circle arcs, rounded to hundreds of kilometres; the total is rounded separately.
Chapter years follow Ross Dunn's chronology, which shortens the text's own for 1328–1332. Dashed stretches are those that at least one historian named in the chapter says probably did not happen.
Marco Polo's route is measured the same way, through the places in Henry Yule and Henri Cordier's reconstruction (1903), including the mission to Yunnan and the voyage home. The journeys Yule treats as uncertain or as hearsay are not measured, so his figure is a cautious one.
The text of the Rihla
- C. Defrémery and B. R. Sanguinetti, Voyages d'Ibn Batoutah, vol. I (Paris, 1853; 1874 reprint)
- Defrémery and Sanguinetti, vol. II (1854): Anatolia, the Golden Horde, Constantinople
- Defrémery and Sanguinetti, vol. III (1855): Central Asia, India
- Defrémery and Sanguinetti, vol. IV (1858): the Maldives, China, Mali
- Samuel Lee, The Travels of Ibn Batuta (London, 1829), translated from an Arabic abridgement
- Ibn Khaldun, Les Prolégomènes, trans. de Slane, vol. I (Paris, 1863), pp. 370–371
Who doubted what, and why
- Henry Yule, Cathay and the Way Thither, vol. IV, ed. Henri Cordier (Hakluyt Society, 1916), pp. 40–50, 137–150
- Stephen Janicsek, “Ibn Baṭṭūṭa's Journey to Bulghār: Is it a Fabrication?”, Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society (1929), pp. 791–800
- Ross E. Dunn, The Adventures of Ibn Battuta (University of California Press, 1986), pp. 3, 12, 134, 172, 179–180, 252–260, 301, 313–315
- H. A. R. Gibb, The Travels of Ibn Baṭṭūṭa, vol. II (Hakluyt Society, 1962), pp. x, 491, 499–500, 527–534
- Charles F. Beckingham, “Ebn Baṭṭūṭa”, Encyclopaedia Iranica VIII/1 (1997)
- Amikam Elad, “The description of the travels of Ibn Baṭṭūṭa in Palestine: is it original?”, Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society (1987)
Marco Polo's route
Images
- Bibliothèque nationale de France, Arabe 2291; public domain · Wikimedia Commons
- Yahya al-Wasiti, 1237, Bibliothèque nationale de France, Arabe 5847; public domain · Wikimedia Commons
- Photo: Muhammad Sadiq Bey, 1880, Khalili Collections; public domain · Wikimedia Commons
- Photo: Richard Mortel, CC BY 2.0 · Wikimedia Commons
- Photochrom, c. 1890–1905, Library of Congress; public domain · Wikimedia Commons
- Photo: Radueduard, CC BY-SA 3.0 RO · Wikimedia Commons
- Photo: Samuel Bourne, LACMA; public domain · Wikimedia Commons
- Photo: Zairon, CC BY-SA 4.0 · Wikimedia Commons
- Engraving attributed to Dirk de Jong, 18th century, Koninklijke Bibliotheek; public domain · Wikimedia Commons
- Photo: Scott Edmunds, CC BY 2.0 · Wikimedia Commons
- Postcard by François-Edmond Fortier, early 20th century; public domain · Wikimedia Commons
- Catalan Atlas, 1375, attributed to Abraham Cresques, Bibliothèque nationale de France; public domain · Wikimedia Commons