Who ruled your town 100, 300 or 600 years ago?

• Peștera cu Oase (c. 42,000–37,000 years ago). The Oase 1 jaw, found in 2002, belongs to one of the earliest modern humans in Europe. The man had a Neanderthal ancestor only four to six generations back.

• Gura Baciului (c. 6200–5500 BC). Some of the first farmers in the Romanian lands lived at Gura Baciului, near Cluj. They belonged to the Starčevo–Criș culture and came from the south-east.
• The Thinker of Cernavodă (c. 5000–4600 BC). The Thinker and the Seated Woman, two fired-clay figurines of the Hamangia culture, were found in 1956 among the grave goods of the cemetery at Cernavodă.

• Cucuteni (c. 4600–3500 BC). The village of Cucuteni, near Târgu Frumos in Iași county, names a culture. Its eastern branch, Trypillia, built settlements of up to 320 hectares in today's Ukraine between c. 3950 and 3650 BC. Estimates of their population vary widely; the most cited is about 15,000 people.

• Histria (founded in 657/656 or c. 630 BC). Histria, founded by settlers from Miletus, is the oldest town on the territory of present-day Romania. Eusebius gives 657/656 BC; about 630 BC is derived from Pseudo-Scymnus, a date that fits the oldest pottery found there.
• Tomis (founded c. 600 BC). Tomis, today's Constanța, was founded by settlers from Miletus.
• Callatis (late Archaic period; the founding year is unknown). Callatis, today's Mangalia, was founded by settlers from Heraclea Pontica, prompted by an oracle.

• Histria (founded in 657/656 or c. 630 BC). Histria, founded by settlers from Miletus, is the oldest town on the territory of present-day Romania. Eusebius gives 657/656 BC; about 630 BC is derived from Pseudo-Scymnus, a date that fits the oldest pottery found there.
• Tomis (founded c. 600 BC). Tomis, today's Constanța, was founded by settlers from Miletus.
• Callatis (late Archaic period; the founding year is unknown). Callatis, today's Mangalia, was founded by settlers from Heraclea Pontica, prompted by an oracle.

• The Akornion decree (48–44 BC). A decree of Dionysopolis, today's Balchik, says that Burebista had recently become 'the first and greatest of the kings in Thrace' and held both banks of the river. It is the only document of his time that names him.
• Sarmizegetusa Regia (1st century BC – AD 106). Sarmizegetusa Regia, in the Orăștie Mountains, was the centre of the Dacian kingdom under Decebalus. The Romans took it in AD 106.
• Costești-Cetățuie (2nd or 1st century BC – AD 106). The Dacian fortress at Costești-Cetățuie received its wall and towers, probably in Burebista's time. It was destroyed in AD 106.

• Lucullus takes the Greek cities (72–71 BC). In 72–71 BC M. Terentius Varro Lucullus, proconsul of Macedonia, took the Greek coastal cities, Tomis among them. His was the first Roman army to enter Dobruja.
• Defeat near Histria (c. 61 BC). The army of C. Antonius Hybrida, governor of Macedonia, was destroyed near Histria. Rome then lost control of the region for about three decades.
• Ovid exiled to Tomis (AD 8–17). Augustus sent the poet Ovid into exile at Tomis in AD 8. There he wrote the Tristia and the Letters from the Black Sea, and there he died in AD 17.
• Tomis (founded c. 600 BC). Tomis, today's Constanța, was founded by settlers from Miletus.
• Histria (founded in 657/656 or c. 630 BC). Histria, founded by settlers from Miletus, is the oldest town on the territory of present-day Romania. Eusebius gives 657/656 BC; about 630 BC is derived from Pseudo-Scymnus, a date that fits the oldest pottery found there.
• Callatis (late Archaic period; the founding year is unknown). Callatis, today's Mangalia, was founded by settlers from Heraclea Pontica, prompted by an oracle.

• Sarmizegetusa Regia (1st century BC – AD 106). Sarmizegetusa Regia, in the Orăștie Mountains, was the centre of the Dacian kingdom under Decebalus. The Romans took it in AD 106.
• Costești-Cetățuie (2nd or 1st century BC – AD 106). The Dacian fortress at Costești-Cetățuie received its wall and towers, probably in Burebista's time. It was destroyed in AD 106.
• Costești-Blidaru (1st century BC – AD 106). Blidaru and Cetățuie together guarded the road up the Grădiștea valley to Sarmizegetusa. Blidaru was destroyed in AD 106.
• Luncani-Piatra Roșie (second half of the 1st century BC – AD 106). The fortress at Piatra Roșie was in use from at least the second half of the 1st century BC until the Roman conquest of AD 106.
• Bănița (1st century BC – AD 106). The fortress at Bănița guarded the southern road to Sarmizegetusa, from the Jiu valley. It was destroyed in AD 106.
• Căpâlna (mid-1st century BC – AD 106). The fortress at Căpâlna, in the Sebeș valley, was begun in the mid-1st century BC. It burnt down in AD 106, during the wars with Rome.

• Moesia Inferior (2nd-century outline). The province's outline after the DARE digital atlas. To the west it bordered Moesia Superior along the Ciabrus (Tsibritsa). DARE (Åhlfeldt, Lund University), CC BY-SA
• Trajan's Bridge (built c. AD 103–105). Between the two Dacian wars, Apollodorus of Damascus built Trajan a bridge with stone piers and timber arches over the Danube at Drobeta. Cassius Dio says it stood on 20 piers.
• Drobeta (Trajanic fort; town in the 2nd century, colonia under Septimius Severus). Drobeta, at the northern end of Trajan's bridge, grew from a fort into a town. Under Septimius Severus it became a colonia, the highest rank of Roman town.
• Sarmizegetusa Regia falls (late summer AD 106). In 106, with his capital and all his territory occupied, Decebalus killed himself. His head was taken to Rome.
• Tropaeum Traiani (dedicated AD 109). At Adamclisi, in AD 109, after the Dacian wars, Trajan dedicated a triumphal monument to Mars the Avenger. Why he chose the site is disputed: a Roman defeat under Domitian, or Trajan's fighting in the winter of 101/102.

• Province of Dacia (2nd-century outline). The province's outline after the DARE digital atlas; its western edge, in the Banat, is disputed. DARE (Åhlfeldt, Lund University), CC BY-SA
• Moesia Inferior (2nd-century outline). The province's outline after the DARE digital atlas. To the west it bordered Moesia Superior along the Ciabrus (Tsibritsa). DARE (Åhlfeldt, Lund University), CC BY-SA
• Ulpia Traiana Sarmizegetusa (founded between AD 106 and 110). Ulpia Traiana, the province's first town, was founded on Trajan's orders with veterans of the Dacian wars. It lay some 40 km west of the old Dacian capital.
• Apulum (106–271/275). Apulum, today's Alba Iulia, was the base of Legio XIII Gemina. From about 118 to 168 it was the only legion in Dacia.
• Potaissa (legionary base from 167/168). In 167 or 168 Legio V Macedonica moved from Troesmis to Potaissa, today's Turda. It became Dacia's second legion.
• Napoca (municipium under Hadrian (117–138)). Napoca, today's Cluj-Napoca, became a municipium, a self-governing town, under Hadrian. It was the seat of the governor of Dacia Porolissensis.
• Porolissum (106–271/275). Porolissum, on the Meseș ridge, guarded the main crossing point into and out of the province. Here, for one stretch, the frontier's earth rampart was replaced by a wall.
• Romula (106–271/275). Romula, near the Olt, was the seat of the governor of Dacia Inferior. Hadrian had formed this province from Oltenia and south-eastern Transylvania.
• Alburnus Maior (wax tablets dated AD 131–167). Wax tablets with contracts and accounts from 131 to 167 were found at Alburnus Maior, today's Roșia Montană. They were written by miners brought mostly from Dalmatia.

• Province of Dacia (2nd-century outline). The province's outline after the DARE digital atlas; its western edge, in the Banat, is disputed. DARE (Åhlfeldt, Lund University), CC BY-SA
• Moesia Inferior (2nd-century outline). The province's outline after the DARE digital atlas. To the west it bordered Moesia Superior along the Ciabrus (Tsibritsa). DARE (Åhlfeldt, Lund University), CC BY-SA
• Limes Alutanus (2nd–3rd century). The line of forts on the Olt (Limes Alutanus), after DARE. It guarded the eastern edge of Dacia Inferior and is usually dated to Hadrian's reign. DARE (Åhlfeldt, Lund University), CC BY-SA
• Limes Transalutanus (2nd–3rd century). The line of forts after DARE; the dating of the Limes Transalutanus (Hadrian or the Severans) is debated. DARE (Åhlfeldt, Lund University), CC BY-SA
• Porolissum (106–271/275). Porolissum, on the Meseș ridge, guarded the main crossing point into and out of the province. Here, for one stretch, the frontier's earth rampart was replaced by a wall.
• Brețcu fort (2nd–3rd century AD). The fort at Brețcu, at the mouth of a pass in the Eastern Carpathians, stood on the province's eastern edge.
• Limes Transalutanus (c. 200 – c. 245–248 (dating disputed)). East of the Olt, a road with an earth rampart and forts 10–20 km apart linked the Danube to the Rucăr–Bran pass. It was given up after the Carpi attacks of 245–247.
• Troesmis (legionary base from after 106 to 167/168). After the conquest of Dacia, Legio V Macedonica moved to Troesmis in northern Dobruja. It stayed there until 167/168.
• Durostorum (legionary base in the 2nd century AD). In the 2nd century Durostorum, today's Silistra, was the base of Legio XI Claudia, which guarded the Danube in Moesia Inferior.
• Noviodunum (1st–3rd century AD). Noviodunum, today's Isaccea, was the main base of the Roman fleet on the lower Danube.
• Barboși (2nd–3rd century AD). At Barboși, near Galați, on the left bank of the Danube, Rome held a bridgehead of Moesia Inferior, a fortified post across the river.

• Province of Dacia (2nd-century outline). The province's outline after the DARE digital atlas; its western edge, in the Banat, is disputed. DARE (Åhlfeldt, Lund University), CC BY-SA
• Moesia Inferior (2nd-century outline). The province's outline after the DARE digital atlas. To the west it bordered Moesia Superior along the Ciabrus (Tsibritsa). DARE (Åhlfeldt, Lund University), CC BY-SA
• Limes Alutanus (2nd–3rd century). The line of forts on the Olt (Limes Alutanus), after DARE. It guarded the eastern edge of Dacia Inferior and is usually dated to Hadrian's reign. DARE (Åhlfeldt, Lund University), CC BY-SA
• Limes Transalutanus (2nd–3rd century). The line of forts after DARE; the dating of the Limes Transalutanus (Hadrian or the Severans) is debated. DARE (Åhlfeldt, Lund University), CC BY-SA
• Apulum (106–271/275). Apulum, today's Alba Iulia, was the base of Legio XIII Gemina. From about 118 to 168 it was the only legion in Dacia.
• Potaissa (legionary base from 167/168). In 167 or 168 Legio V Macedonica moved from Troesmis to Potaissa, today's Turda. It became Dacia's second legion.
• Romula (106–271/275). Romula, near the Olt, was the seat of the governor of Dacia Inferior. Hadrian had formed this province from Oltenia and south-eastern Transylvania.
• Drobeta (Trajanic fort; town in the 2nd century, colonia under Septimius Severus). Drobeta, at the northern end of Trajan's bridge, grew from a fort into a town. Under Septimius Severus it became a colonia, the highest rank of Roman town.
• Limes Transalutanus (c. 200 – c. 245–248 (dating disputed)). East of the Olt, a road with an earth rampart and forts 10–20 km apart linked the Danube to the Rucăr–Bran pass. It was given up after the Carpi attacks of 245–247.

• Scythia Minor (c. 293 – early 7th century). The Roman, later East Roman, province with its capital at Tomis; the outline roughly follows today's Dobruja.
• Tomis, capital of Scythia Minor (between 286 and 293 – 679/681). Between 286 and 293 Diocletian detached Scythia Minor (Dobruja) from Moesia Inferior and made it a province, with its capital at Tomis. Roman control largely collapsed in the early 7th century, and in 681 Byzantium recognised the Bulgar settlement.
• Constantine's bridge, Sucidava (328 (opened, per the Chronicon Paschale)). Constantine the Great built a bridge on stone piers across the Danube between Sucidava (Celei, near Corabia) and Oescus. Opened in 328, it gave Rome a bridgehead on the left bank.
• The Huns destroy Sucidava (c. 410–411 (per Bóna); again in 443–447). Around 410–411, as dated by the archaeologist István Bóna, the Huns destroyed the Roman forts at Sucidava and Hinova, on the left bank of the Danube. The plain between the Danube and the Carpathians came under their control. Under Attila, in 443–447, Sucidava was sacked again.

• Sântana de Mureș cemetery (4th century (cemeteries abandoned 376–381)). The cemetery at Sântana de Mureș, near Târgu Mureș, gave its name to the Sântana de Mureș–Chernyakhov culture. In the 4th century this culture stretched from Transylvania to Ukraine.
• Pietroasele treasure (late 4th or early 5th century (found 1837)). The Pietroasele gold hoard (Buzău), found in 1837, is a Gothic treasure of the late 4th or early 5th century. Of about 22 pieces, 12 survive, at the National Museum of Romanian History.
• Biertan donarium (4th century (found 1775)). In 1775 a 4th-century Christian bronze object was found near Biertan. It bears the Latin inscription EGO ZENOVIVS VOTVM POSVI ('I, Zenovius, offered this gift').

• The Huns destroy Sucidava (c. 410–411 (per Bóna); again in 443–447). Around 410–411, as dated by the archaeologist István Bóna, the Huns destroyed the Roman forts at Sucidava and Hinova, on the left bank of the Danube. The plain between the Danube and the Carpathians came under their control. Under Attila, in 443–447, Sucidava was sacked again.
• Princely graves at Apahida (c. 470–500 (found 1889 and 1968)). At least two Gepid princely graves of about 470–500 were found at Apahida, near Cluj. A gold ring bears the name OMHARIVS, probably that of a king absent from the written sources.
• The Avars end the Gepid kingdom (567–568). In 567–568 the Avars destroyed the Gepid kingdom. The Gepid settlement and cemetery at Morești, on the Mureș, were abandoned then; so, according to the archaeologist István Bóna, were at least 25 of the 30 known Gepid cemeteries.

• Tomis, capital of Scythia Minor (between 286 and 293 – 679/681). Between 286 and 293 Diocletian detached Scythia Minor (Dobruja) from Moesia Inferior and made it a province, with its capital at Tomis. Roman control largely collapsed in the early 7th century, and in 681 Byzantium recognised the Bulgar settlement.
• Blandiana cemetery (9th century). A 9th-century cemetery with Bulgar-type pottery was found at Blandiana, on the Mureș. In 892 King Arnulf asked the Bulgars to stop selling salt to the Moravians.

• Dristra, seat of Paristrion (971 – last quarter of the 12th century). After 971 Dorostolon (Silistra) became the centre of Byzantine rule on the Lower Danube. The province, called Paristrion or Paradounavon, stayed Byzantine until the revolt of 1185–1186.
• Dinogetia fort (Garvăn) (restored after 971). Dinogetia fort is one of the old Roman forts on the Danube that the Byzantines restored and enlarged after 971, when Dobruja again became an imperial province.
• Capidava fort (restored after 971). Capidava fort is one of the old Roman forts on the Danube that the Byzantines restored and enlarged after 971, when Dobruja again became an imperial province.
• Noviodunum (Isaccea) (restored after 971). Noviodunum is one of the old Roman forts on the Danube that the Byzantines restored and enlarged after 971, when Dobruja again became an imperial province.
• Păcuiul lui Soare (after 971 (or earlier, per Atanasov)). On the island of Păcuiul lui Soare, near Ostrov, stands a fortress with a Danube harbour. It is usually taken to be a Byzantine work built after 971.

• Stephen I defeats the gyula (1003). According to the Annals of Hildesheim, in 1003 King Stephen of Hungary captured his uncle, 'King Iulus', with his wife and two sons, and forced his land to accept Christianity. Historians identify Iulus with the gyula, the ruler of Transylvania.
• Morisena (Cenad), Ajtony's seat (1002, 1008 or 1027–1030; bishopric 1030). Ajtony, lord of Morisena (Cenad) on the Mureș, was defeated by King Stephen's army under Csanád. In 1030 Gerard became the first bishop of Cenad.
• Turda castle (1075) (1075). The oldest documentary mention of a royal castle in Transylvania is 'castrum Turda', in a charter dated 1075. The charter founded Garamszentbenedek abbey and gave it half the royal toll on salt loaded on the Arieș.
• Mercurius, 'princeps Ultrasilvanus' (1111) (1111 and 1113). Royal charters of 1111 and 1113 call Mercurius 'princeps Ultrasilvanus'. He was possibly the first governor of Transylvania known by name; some historians think he was only a great landowner. The title voivode appears in charters only at the end of the 12th century.

• Gelou in the Gesta (Căpuș river) (late 9th century, in a chronicle written c. 1200). The Gesta Hungarorum, a chronicle written around 1200, says Transylvania was ruled by Gelou, 'a certain Vlach', whose subjects were Vlachs and Slavs. It says Tuhutum's men killed him by the Căpuș river.
• Biharia: Menumorut in the Gesta (late 9th century (Gesta); civitas Byhor in 1075). The Gesta makes Bihar castle the seat of Duke Menumorut, lord of the land between the Tisza, the Mureș and the Someș. The castle (civitas Byhor) appears only in a charter dated 1075.
• Dăbâca fort (9th/10th–11th century; count of Dăbâca in 1164). The dating of the earth-and-timber fort at Dăbâca is disputed: some archaeologists see 9th-century traces, others date it after 965. A count of Dăbâca appears in charters from 1164.
• Morisena (Cenad), Ajtony's seat (1002, 1008 or 1027–1030; bishopric 1030). Ajtony, lord of Morisena (Cenad) on the Mureș, was defeated by King Stephen's army under Csanád. In 1030 Gerard became the first bishop of Cenad.

• Biertan donarium (4th century (found 1775)). In 1775 a 4th-century Christian bronze object was found near Biertan. It bears the Latin inscription EGO ZENOVIVS VOTVM POSVI ('I, Zenovius, offered this gift').
• Cârța: 'exempta de Blaccis' (1223 (confirms an earlier grant)). In 1223 King Andrew II confirmed to the Cistercian abbey of Cârța a piece of land on the Olt 'taken out from the Vlachs' (exemptam de Blaccis). The land had been granted earlier, through the voivode Benedict.
• 'Terra Blacorum' (Făgăraș) (1222 (dated text; authenticity disputed)). A privilege dated 1222 exempts the Teutonic Knights' people from tolls when they cross 'the land of the Székelys or the land of the Vlachs' (terra Blacorum). Historians place this land in the Făgăraș area.

• Teutonic Knights in Țara Bârsei (1211–1225). In 1211 King Andrew II gave the Teutonic Order Țara Bârsei, described in the charter as 'deserted and uninhabited', 'beyond the forests towards the Cumans', to build wooden forts against the Cumans. In 1225 he expelled the knights.
• 'Terra Blacorum' (Făgăraș) (1222 (dated text; authenticity disputed)). A privilege dated 1222 exempts the Teutonic Knights' people from tolls when they cross 'the land of the Székelys or the land of the Vlachs' (terra Blacorum). Historians place this land in the Făgăraș area.
• Cârța: 'exempta de Blaccis' (1223 (confirms an earlier grant)). In 1223 King Andrew II confirmed to the Cistercian abbey of Cârța a piece of land on the Olt 'taken out from the Vlachs' (exemptam de Blaccis). The land had been granted earlier, through the voivode Benedict.
• Andreanum, Sibiu (1224). With the Andreanum (1224) King Andrew II united the German settlers of southern Transylvania, from Orăștie to Baraolt, as one people under the count of Sibiu. He also gave them common use of 'the forest of the Vlachs and Pechenegs'.
• 'Land of the Székelys of Sebeș' (before 1224; count of the Székelys in 1235). The Andreanum of 1224 also gives the Saxons 'the land of the Székelys of Sebeș'. Historians regard the Székelys as the kingdom's border guards, moved east in stages, and a count of the Székelys appears in charters from 1235.

• Revolt of Peter and Asen (autumn 1185 – 1186). In autumn 1185 the brothers Asen and Theodore-Peter led Paristrion in revolt against Byzantium. The Byzantine sources call them Vlachs, and their state presented itself as the revival of the Bulgarian tsardom.
• Bishopric of Cumania (Milcov) (1227/1228 – 1241). In 1227 the Cuman chief Bars was baptised and submitted to the king of Hungary. A Catholic bishopric of the Cumans then existed on the Milcov, from 1228 until the Mongol invasion of 1241.
• Severin: first ban (1233) (1233). The kings of Hungary appointed a ban, or governor, seated at Severin castle. The first ban of Severin appears in a charter of 1233.

• Kadan's Mongols, 1241 (spring 1241). In spring 1241 a Mongol army under Kadan crossed the Rodna pass and besieged Rodna. It then devastated Bistrița and Cluj and left through the Meseș Gate towards the Tisza plain.
• Bogutai's Mongols, 1241 (spring 1241). A second Mongol army, under Bogutai, came through the Oituz pass, killed the voivode Pósa and took Cetatea de Baltă, Sibiu and Alba Iulia in turn. A detachment crossed the Siret and laid waste to Cumania.
• Bishopric of Cumania (Milcov) (1227/1228 – 1241). In 1227 the Cuman chief Bars was baptised and submitted to the king of Hungary. A Catholic bishopric of the Cumans then existed on the Milcov, from 1228 until the Mongol invasion of 1241.

• Diploma of the Joannites (2 June 1247). On 2 June 1247 King Béla IV granted the Hospitallers the land of Severin up to the Olt and Cumania beyond it. He excluded the lands of the voivodes Litovoi and Seneslau, which he left to the Vlachs 'as they have held them until now'.
• Hațeg ('terra Harszoc') (1247). The 1247 diploma gave the Hospitallers half the revenues from the Vlachs of Litovoi's land, 'except the land of Hațeg', which the king kept for himself.
• Litovoi refuses tribute (c. 1272 or 1277–1280 (told in a charter of 8 January 1285)). The voivode Litovoi refused the tribute demanded by King Ladislaus IV and was killed by the army sent against him. His brother Bărbat was captured and ransomed, according to a royal charter of 1285.
• Basarab, 'our voivode' (26 July 1324). A charter of King Charles Robert dated 26 July 1324 calls Basarab 'our Transalpine voivode', that is, a vassal of the Hungarian crown. It is Basarab's first documentary mention.
• Charles Robert takes Severin (September 1330). In September 1330 King Charles Robert entered Basarab's land through Severin, took the castle and gave it, with the banate, to Dionysius. Basarab offered 7,000 marks of silver for peace, but the king refused.
• 1330 battle: Loviștea hypothesis (9–12 November 1330). Loviștea is one of the proposed sites of the battle of 9–12 November 1330, in which Basarab's army defeated King Charles Robert's host. The hypothesis comes from A. Sacerdoțeanu (1934) and I. Conea (1935).
• 1330 battle: Bran hypothesis (9–12 November 1330). The road between Câmpulung and Bran is one of the proposed sites of the battle of 9–12 November 1330, in which Basarab's army defeated King Charles Robert's host. The hypothesis comes from N. Iorga.
• 1330 battle: Mehadia hypothesis (9–12 November 1330). The Mehadia–Orșova straits are one of the proposed sites of the battle of 9–12 November 1330, in which Basarab's army defeated King Charles Robert's host. The hypothesis comes from P. Dragalina (1899) and is supported by C. Rezachevici.
• 1330 battle: Prahova hypothesis (9–12 November 1330). The Prahova valley is one of the proposed sites of the battle of 9–12 November 1330, in which Basarab's army defeated King Charles Robert's host. The hypothesis comes from F.-N. Smărăndescu.

On the map: Wallachia: Oltenia, Muntenia; The Kingdom of Hungary: Transylvania (south), Transylvania (north), Crișana (south), Crișana and Maramureș (north), the Banat plain, the Banat highlands.

• Posada (9–12 November 1330). King Charles Robert of Hungary's army is ambushed by Basarab's men and almost destroyed; the king barely escapes. The site of the battle is disputed.
• Curtea de Argeș (14th – early 15th century). Curtea de Argeș is the seat of Wallachia's princes in the 14th century. By tradition, Câmpulung was an even earlier seat.

On the map: Wallachia: Oltenia, Muntenia; Moldavia: Moldavia west of the Prut, southern Bukovina, northern Bukovina, the Herța region, the Hotin region (north, now in Ukraine), the Hotin region (south, now in Moldova), Bessarabia (centre and north), southern Bessarabia (Cahul), southern Bessarabia (Izmail, Bolhrad), eastern Budjak (Cetatea Albă), south-eastern Bessarabia (now in Moldova) (under the suzerainty of the king of Poland); The Ottoman Empire: northern Dobruja, the Cadrilater (southern Dobruja); The Kingdom of Hungary: Transylvania (south), Transylvania (north), Crișana (south), Crișana and Maramureș (north), the Banat plain, the Banat highlands.

• Baia (mid-14th century). Moldavian chronicles place the beginning of Moldavia at Baia, a town of Saxon settlers, under Dragoș from Maramureș. His land was a border march, a defensive frontier district, of the Kingdom of Hungary.
• Bogdan I (1359 (revolt); 2 February 1365 (royal charter)). Bogdan of Maramureș crosses the mountains, drives out Balc, the Hungarian king's vassal, and holds Moldavia against the king's will. Romanian historians see an independent country; the Hungarian Academy's History of Transylvania, broad autonomy.
• Siret (second half of the 14th century). Siret is one of the first seats of Moldavia's princes, before the seat moves to Suceava.
• Suceava (late 14th century – 1564). Suceava is Moldavia's princely seat, its capital, from the late 14th century until 1564.
• Cetatea Albă (late 14th century – 1484). Cetatea Albă, a port at the mouth of the Dniester, passes to Moldavia in the late 14th century and gives it access to the sea.
• Moldavian Metropolis recognised (July 1401). The Patriarchate of Constantinople recognises Iosif as Metropolitan of Moldavia. The recognition follows more than ten years of conflict with Moldavia's princes.

On the map: Wallachia: Oltenia, Muntenia (under Ottoman suzerainty); Moldavia: Moldavia west of the Prut, southern Bukovina, northern Bukovina, the Herța region, the Hotin region (north, now in Ukraine), the Hotin region (south, now in Moldova), Bessarabia (centre and north), southern Bessarabia (Cahul), southern Bessarabia (Izmail, Bolhrad), eastern Budjak (Cetatea Albă), south-eastern Bessarabia (now in Moldova) (under the suzerainty of the king of Poland); The Ottoman Empire: northern Dobruja, the Cadrilater (southern Dobruja); The Kingdom of Hungary: Transylvania (south), Transylvania (north), Crișana (south), Crișana and Maramureș (north), the Banat plain, the Banat highlands.

• Roma slaves, Tismana (1385). The first record of Roma slaves: Prince Dan I grants Tismana Monastery 40 'sălașe' of 'ațigani' that had belonged to Vodița Monastery. A sălaș was the household of one or a few families.
• Roma slaves in Moldavia (1428). Alexander the Good grants Bistrița Monastery 31 households of Gypsies and 12 of Tatars. It is the earliest known grant of Roma slaves in Moldavia.

On the map: Wallachia: Oltenia, Muntenia (under Ottoman suzerainty); Moldavia: Moldavia west of the Prut, southern Bukovina, northern Bukovina, the Herța region, the Hotin region (north, now in Ukraine), the Hotin region (south, now in Moldova), Bessarabia (centre and north), southern Bessarabia (Cahul), southern Bessarabia (Izmail, Bolhrad), eastern Budjak (Cetatea Albă), south-eastern Bessarabia (now in Moldova) (under the suzerainty of the king of Poland); The Ottoman Empire: northern Dobruja, the Cadrilater (southern Dobruja); The Kingdom of Hungary: Transylvania (south), Transylvania (north), Crișana (south), Crișana and Maramureș (north), the Banat plain, the Banat highlands.

• Rovine (10 October 1394 or 17 May 1395). Mircea the Elder fights Sultan Bayezid I's army at Rovine, a site never identified. Historians dispute the date and the victor, but the Ottomans do not conquer the country.
• Nicopolis (25 September 1396). The crusade led by King Sigismund of Hungary is crushed by the Ottomans at Nicopolis, on the right bank of the Danube opposite Turnu.
• Dârstor (Silistra) (after 1402 – 1419). After Bayezid's defeat at Ankara (1402), Mircea retakes Silistra and holds it until his death. In spring 1419 Sultan Mehmed I retakes Silistra and all of Dobruja.

On the map: Wallachia: Oltenia, Muntenia (under Ottoman suzerainty); Moldavia: Moldavia west of the Prut, southern Bukovina, northern Bukovina, the Herța region, the Hotin region (north, now in Ukraine), the Hotin region (south, now in Moldova), Bessarabia (centre and north), southern Bessarabia (Cahul), southern Bessarabia (Izmail, Bolhrad), eastern Budjak (Cetatea Albă), south-eastern Bessarabia (now in Moldova) (under the suzerainty of the king of Poland); The Ottoman Empire: northern Dobruja, the Cadrilater (southern Dobruja); The Kingdom of Hungary: Transylvania (south), Transylvania (north), Crișana (south), Crișana and Maramureș (north), the Banat plain, the Banat highlands.

• Wallachia pays tribute (1417 (some works: 1415)). After Sultan Mehmed I's campaign of 1417, Wallachia agrees to pay the Porte (the Ottoman government) an annual tribute and to send noble hostages.
• Giurgiu (Yergöğü) (1420–1427; c. 1431–1445; again from 1449). Giurgiu fortress, built by Mircea, is taken by the Ottomans in 1420, retaken by the Wallachians in 1427, lost again around 1431, retaken by Vlad Dracul in 1445 and Ottoman again from 1449. It becomes the seat of a kaza (Ottoman district) of 25 villages.
• Turnu (Kule) (around 1420). Together with Giurgiu, the Ottomans annex the fortress of Turnu, across the Danube from Nicopolis, and hold it until 1829.

On the map: Wallachia: Oltenia, Muntenia (under Ottoman suzerainty); Moldavia: Moldavia west of the Prut, southern Bukovina, northern Bukovina, the Herța region, the Hotin region (north, now in Ukraine), the Hotin region (south, now in Moldova), Bessarabia (centre and north), southern Bessarabia (Cahul), southern Bessarabia (Izmail, Bolhrad), eastern Budjak (Cetatea Albă), south-eastern Bessarabia (now in Moldova) (under the suzerainty of the king of Poland); The Ottoman Empire: northern Dobruja, the Cadrilater (southern Dobruja); The Kingdom of Hungary: Transylvania (south), Transylvania (north), Crișana (south), Crișana and Maramureș (north), the Banat plain, the Banat highlands.

• Bobâlna revolt (spring 1437 – January 1438). Hungarian and Romanian peasants in Transylvania rise against the bishop's tithes and camp on Bobâlna hill. The revolt is crushed in January 1438.
• Union of the Three Nations (September 1437 (Kápolna); 2 February 1438 (Torda)). Transylvania's nobles, Székelys and Saxons swear mutual support against the rebel peasants. Romanian historiography sees the exclusion of Romanians as a people; László Makkai, a union of estates (privileged orders).

On the map: Wallachia: Oltenia, Muntenia (under Ottoman suzerainty); Moldavia: Moldavia west of the Prut, southern Bukovina, northern Bukovina, the Herța region, the Hotin region (north, now in Ukraine), the Hotin region (south, now in Moldova), Bessarabia (centre and north), southern Bessarabia (Cahul), southern Bessarabia (Izmail, Bolhrad), eastern Budjak (Cetatea Albă), south-eastern Bessarabia (now in Moldova) (under Ottoman suzerainty); The Ottoman Empire: northern Dobruja, the Cadrilater (southern Dobruja); The Kingdom of Hungary: Transylvania (south), Transylvania (north), Crișana (south), Crișana and Maramureș (north), the Banat plain, the Banat highlands.

• Hunedoara (1409 (estate); 1441–1456 (voivode, governor)). The Hunyadi family, probably boyars from Wallachia, receive the Hunedoara estate in 1409. John Hunyadi becomes voivode of Transylvania in 1441 and then governor of Hungary.
• Belgrade, 1456 (4–22 July 1456). John Hunyadi breaks Mehmed II's siege of Belgrade. He dies of plague the same year and is buried at Alba Iulia.
• Matthias's birthplace, Cluj (23 February 1443). Matthias, son of John Hunyadi, is born in Cluj. Elected King of Hungary in 1458, he reigns until 1490.

On the map: Wallachia: Oltenia, Muntenia (under Ottoman suzerainty); Moldavia: Moldavia west of the Prut, southern Bukovina, northern Bukovina, the Herța region, the Hotin region (north, now in Ukraine), the Hotin region (south, now in Moldova), Bessarabia (centre and north), southern Bessarabia (Cahul), southern Bessarabia (Izmail, Bolhrad), eastern Budjak (Cetatea Albă), south-eastern Bessarabia (now in Moldova) (under Ottoman suzerainty); The Ottoman Empire: northern Dobruja, the Cadrilater (southern Dobruja); The Kingdom of Hungary: Transylvania (south), Transylvania (north), Crișana (south), Crișana and Maramureș (north), the Banat plain, the Banat highlands.

• Bucharest, 1459 (20 September 1459). A charter of Vlad III, written in Slavonic, ends with 'written in the fortress of Bucharest'. It is the first mention of the city.
• Târgoviște (early 15th century – 1659). From the early 15th century Târgoviște is the main seat of Wallachia's princes. From the later 15th century Bucharest is a second residence.
• The night attack (17 June 1462). Vlad III, who had refused the tribute, raids Sultan Mehmed II's camp at night. The campaign still ends with Radu the Handsome on the throne and the tribute restored.

On the map: Wallachia: Oltenia, Muntenia (under Ottoman suzerainty); Moldavia: Moldavia west of the Prut, southern Bukovina, northern Bukovina, the Herța region, the Hotin region (north, now in Ukraine), the Hotin region (south, now in Moldova), Bessarabia (centre and north), southern Bessarabia (Cahul) (under Ottoman suzerainty); The Ottoman Empire: southern Bessarabia (Izmail, Bolhrad), eastern Budjak (Cetatea Albă), south-eastern Bessarabia (now in Moldova), northern Dobruja, the Cadrilater (southern Dobruja); The Kingdom of Hungary: Transylvania (south), Transylvania (north), Crișana (south), Crișana and Maramureș (north), the Banat plain, the Banat highlands.

• Vaslui (10 January 1475). At Vaslui, Stephen the Great, who had stopped paying tribute, defeats the Ottoman army sent to punish him.
• Războieni (26 July 1476). Sultan Mehmed II defeats Stephen the Great's army at Războieni (Valea Albă). Peace negotiations follow.
• Fall of Chilia (14 or 15 July 1484). Sultan Bayezid II besieges Chilia by land and from the Danube. After ten days of bombardment the commander surrenders the fortress.
• Fall of Cetatea Albă (3–5 August 1484). The Ottomans, helped by the Crimean khan, take Cetatea Albă. Moldavia has now lost both its ports, and Stephen resumes paying tribute in 1486.
• The Budjak Tatars (after 1484 and especially after 1538). Bayezid II settles tax-exempt Tatars around Cetatea Albă. After 1538 Nogais and Tatars under the Crimean khan's authority settle the Budjak more and more densely.

On the map: Wallachia: Oltenia, Muntenia (under Ottoman suzerainty); Moldavia: Moldavia west of the Prut, southern Bukovina, northern Bukovina, the Herța region, the Hotin region (north, now in Ukraine), the Hotin region (south, now in Moldova), Bessarabia (centre and north), southern Bessarabia (Cahul) (under Ottoman suzerainty); The Ottoman Empire: southern Bessarabia (Izmail, Bolhrad), eastern Budjak (Cetatea Albă), south-eastern Bessarabia (now in Moldova), northern Dobruja, the Cadrilater (southern Dobruja); The Kingdom of Hungary: Transylvania (south), Transylvania (north), Crișana (south), Crișana and Maramureș (north), the Banat plain, the Banat highlands.

• Neacșu's letter (29–30 June 1521 (probably)). Neacșu, a merchant of Câmpulung, writes to the judge (mayor) of Brașov about an Ottoman troop movement. It is the oldest surviving Romanian-language text that can be dated almost to the day.

On the map: Wallachia: Oltenia, Muntenia (under Ottoman suzerainty); Moldavia: Moldavia west of the Prut, southern Bukovina, northern Bukovina, the Herța region, the Hotin region (north, now in Ukraine), the Hotin region (south, now in Moldova), Bessarabia (centre and north), southern Bessarabia (Cahul) (under Ottoman suzerainty); The Ottoman Empire: southern Bessarabia (Izmail, Bolhrad), eastern Budjak (Cetatea Albă), south-eastern Bessarabia (now in Moldova), northern Dobruja, the Cadrilater (southern Dobruja); The Eastern Hungarian Kingdom: Transylvania (south), Transylvania (north), Crișana (south), Crișana and Maramureș (north), the Banat plain, the Banat highlands (under Ottoman suzerainty).

• Dózsa's revolt (1514; Dózsa executed 20 July 1514). A crusade against the Turks becomes a great peasant war, led by the Székely György Dózsa and fought mainly on the Great Plain. Dózsa is defeated at Timișoara, and the laws of 1514 tie the peasants to the land.
• Mohács (29 August 1526). Hungary's army is destroyed by the Ottomans at Mohács, and King Louis II dies. Two rival kings follow: John Szapolyai and Ferdinand of Habsburg.
• Fall of Buda (August 1541). Suleiman occupies Buda, and Hungary splits in three. Transylvania and the eastern parts become a state tributary to the Porte, governed from Alba Iulia.
• Alba Iulia (Gyulafehérvár) (from 1541). After 1541 the former seat of the Catholic bishopric becomes the capital of the Transylvanian state.

On the map: Wallachia: Oltenia, Muntenia (under Ottoman suzerainty); Moldavia: Moldavia west of the Prut, southern Bukovina, northern Bukovina, the Herța region, the Hotin region (north, now in Ukraine), the Hotin region (south, now in Moldova), Bessarabia (centre and north), southern Bessarabia (Cahul) (under Ottoman suzerainty); The Ottoman Empire: southern Bessarabia (Izmail, Bolhrad), eastern Budjak (Cetatea Albă), south-eastern Bessarabia (now in Moldova), northern Dobruja, the Cadrilater (southern Dobruja), Crișana (south), the Banat plain, the Banat highlands; The Habsburg Monarchy: Transylvania (south), Transylvania (north), Crișana and Maramureș (north).

• Suceava capitulates (September 1538). Sultan Suleiman the Magnificent marches into Moldavia against Petru Rareș. Suceava capitulates, Rareș loses the throne and the sultan appoints Ștefan Lăcustă prince.
• Tighina (Bender) (1538). After the 1538 campaign Tighina becomes an Ottoman fortress named Bender. The south of the land between the Prut and the Dniester is organised as the Budjak.
• Hotin (1476; 1538). Hotin fortress, on the Dniester, stays Moldavian throughout the 16th century. It holds out against the Ottomans in 1476; in 1538 the Poles besiege it and then return it to Rareș.
• Brăila (Ibrail) (between 1538 and 1540). The Ottomans take Brăila between 1538 and 1540 and make it the seat of a kaza (district) of the sancak (province) of Silistra. In the later 16th century the kaza has five or six villages.
• Fall of Timișoara (1552). The Ottomans take Timișoara and the forts on the Mureș. The Banat plain becomes the Eyalet of Timișoara, an Ottoman province ruled directly by a pasha.
• Lipova (1552). Lipova, a former Szapolyai stronghold on the Mureș, falls in 1552 along with the whole of Arad county.
• Lugoj–Caransebeș (lost 1552; returned 1554). Lugoj and Caransebeș fall in 1552, but in 1554 the sultan hands them back to a Szapolyai partisan. They then stay Transylvanian border forts until 1658.

On the map: Wallachia: Oltenia, Muntenia (under Ottoman suzerainty); Moldavia: Moldavia west of the Prut, southern Bukovina, northern Bukovina, the Herța region, the Hotin region (north, now in Ukraine), the Hotin region (south, now in Moldova), Bessarabia (centre and north), southern Bessarabia (Cahul) (under Ottoman suzerainty); The Ottoman Empire: southern Bessarabia (Izmail, Bolhrad), eastern Budjak (Cetatea Albă), south-eastern Bessarabia (now in Moldova), northern Dobruja, the Cadrilater (southern Dobruja), Crișana (south), the Banat plain; The Principality of Transylvania: Transylvania (south), Transylvania (north), Crișana and Maramureș (north), the Banat highlands (under Ottoman suzerainty).

• Iași (around 1564). Prince Alexandru Lăpușneanu moves Moldavia's seat from Suceava to Iași. The town remains the capital until 1859.
• Treaty of Speyer (1570; ratified 10 March 1571). John Sigismund gives up the title of king and becomes 'prince'. The Principality of Transylvania is born, keeping Maramureș (Máramaros), Crasna (Kraszna), Middle Szolnok (Közép-Szolnok) and Bihor (Bihar).
• Alba Iulia (Gyulafehérvár) (from 1541). After 1541 the former seat of the Catholic bishopric becomes the capital of the Transylvanian state.

On the map: Wallachia: Oltenia, Muntenia (under Habsburg suzerainty); Moldavia: Moldavia west of the Prut, southern Bukovina, northern Bukovina, the Herța region, the Hotin region (north, now in Ukraine), the Hotin region (south, now in Moldova), Bessarabia (centre and north), southern Bessarabia (Cahul) (under the suzerainty of the king of Poland); The Ottoman Empire: southern Bessarabia (Izmail, Bolhrad), eastern Budjak (Cetatea Albă), south-eastern Bessarabia (now in Moldova), northern Dobruja, the Cadrilater (southern Dobruja), Crișana (south), the Banat plain; The Principality of Transylvania: Transylvania (south), Transylvania (north), Crișana and Maramureș (north), the Banat highlands (under Habsburg suzerainty).

• Călugăreni (13 August (Old Style) / 23 August (New Style) 1595). Michael the Brave, who had risen against the Porte and become Sigismund Báthory's vassal, halts Sinan Pasha's army at Călugăreni but then has to withdraw to the mountains.
• Giurgiu, 1595 (October 1595). With the Transylvanian army, Michael retakes Târgoviște and Bucharest and destroys Sinan Pasha's rearguard at Giurgiu.
• Șelimbăr (18 October (Old Style) / 28 October (New Style) 1599). Michael defeats Cardinal Andrew Báthory's army at Șelimbăr. On 1 November he enters Alba Iulia, and the diet (the assembly of the estates) acknowledges him as Emperor Rudolf II's governor.
• Michael in Moldavia (May 1600). Michael launches a surprise attack on Moldavia and drives out the Polish-backed prince Ieremia Movilă. The Hungarian Academy's History of Transylvania explains the attack by his need for money for mercenaries; Romanian historiography, by a plan to unite the three countries.
• Three countries, one ruler (May – September 1600). From May to September 1600 Michael rules Wallachia, Transylvania and Moldavia at once; his seal carries the arms of all three. School tradition calls it the first union; other historians see a personal rule held by force.
• Mirăslău (18 September 1600). Rebel Transylvanian nobles and General Basta's imperial army defeat Michael at Mirăslău. He loses Transylvania, then Moldavia and Wallachia.
• Guruslău (3 August 1601). Michael and Basta, allies again, defeat Sigismund Báthory, who had returned to the Transylvanian throne, at Guruslău.
• Michael's death (9 August (Old Style) / 19 August (New Style) 1601). Two weeks after Guruslău, Michael is killed near Turda by Walloon officers of Basta's army.

On the map: Wallachia: Oltenia, Muntenia (under Ottoman suzerainty); Moldavia: Moldavia west of the Prut, southern Bukovina, northern Bukovina, the Herța region, the Hotin region (north, now in Ukraine), the Hotin region (south, now in Moldova), Bessarabia (centre and north), southern Bessarabia (Cahul) (under Ottoman suzerainty); The Ottoman Empire: southern Bessarabia (Izmail, Bolhrad), eastern Budjak (Cetatea Albă), south-eastern Bessarabia (now in Moldova), northern Dobruja, the Cadrilater (southern Dobruja), Crișana (south), the Banat plain; The Principality of Transylvania: Transylvania (south), Transylvania (north), Crișana and Maramureș (north), the Banat highlands (under Ottoman suzerainty).

• Alba Iulia, Bethlen's seat (23 October 1613 – 15 November 1629). Gabriel Bethlen became prince of Transylvania on 23 October 1613, elected under pressure from an Ottoman army, and ruled from Alba Iulia until his death on 15 November 1629.

On the map: Wallachia: Oltenia, Muntenia (under Ottoman suzerainty); Moldavia: Moldavia west of the Prut, southern Bukovina, northern Bukovina, the Herța region, the Hotin region (north, now in Ukraine), the Hotin region (south, now in Moldova), Bessarabia (centre and north), southern Bessarabia (Cahul) (under Ottoman suzerainty); The Ottoman Empire: southern Bessarabia (Izmail, Bolhrad), eastern Budjak (Cetatea Albă), south-eastern Bessarabia (now in Moldova), northern Dobruja, the Cadrilater (southern Dobruja), Crișana (south), the Banat plain, the Banat highlands; The Principality of Transylvania: Transylvania (south), Transylvania (north), Crișana and Maramureș (north) (under Ottoman suzerainty).

• Ineu, Lugoj go to the Ottomans (1658 (Ineu: 2 September 1658)). In 1658 the fortress of Ineu surrendered to the Ottomans and Prince Ákos Barcsai ceded Lugoj and Caransebeș to the Porte; the Peace of Vasvár (1664) confirmed these losses.
• The Ottomans take Oradea (August 1660). After a 44-day siege, Oradea surrendered to the Ottomans in August 1660 and became the seat of an Ottoman province (the Eyalet of Varat) until 1692.

On the map: Wallachia: Oltenia, Muntenia (under Ottoman suzerainty); Moldavia: Moldavia west of the Prut, southern Bukovina, northern Bukovina, the Herța region, the Hotin region (north, now in Ukraine), the Hotin region (south, now in Moldova), Bessarabia (centre and north), southern Bessarabia (Cahul) (under Ottoman suzerainty); The Ottoman Empire: southern Bessarabia (Izmail, Bolhrad), eastern Budjak (Cetatea Albă), south-eastern Bessarabia (now in Moldova), northern Dobruja, the Cadrilater (southern Dobruja), the Banat plain, the Banat highlands; The Habsburg Monarchy: Transylvania (south), Transylvania (north), Crișana (south), Crișana and Maramureș (north).

• Siege of Vienna (July – 12 September 1683). On the sultan's order, Prince Mihály Apafi joined the grand vizier's camp at Vienna in 1683 with a small force. The Ottoman defeat on 12 September opened the war that brought Transylvania under the Habsburgs.
• Treaty of Blaj (October 1687). In autumn 1687, with some 40,000 imperial troops in the country, the principality signed an agreement with Charles of Lorraine at Blaj: winter quarters for the troops and Sibiu handed over, in return for a promise to respect its autonomy.
• Declaration of Făgăraș (9 May 1688). On 9 May 1688 Transylvania's council and estates signed a renunciation of Ottoman suzerainty in favour of Leopold I, Emperor and King of Hungary. The act is named after Făgăraș, Prince Apafi's residence.
• Battle of Zărnești (21 August 1690). On 21 August 1690 Imre Thököly, appointed prince by the Porte, defeated the imperial army at Zărnești; elected prince in September, he was driven out the same autumn.
• Diploma Leopoldinum (October 1690 – December 1691). The Diploma Leopoldinum set Transylvania's status under the Habsburgs: internal autonomy, a governor chosen from the three 'nations' (Hungarian nobility, Saxons, Székelys) and a fixed tax of 50,000 thalers in peacetime (400,000 florins in wartime). The Romanians were not among them.
• Imperial troops retake Oradea (June 1692). Imperial troops besieged Oradea from 1691 for close to a year; the Ottoman garrison surrendered in June 1692.
• Peace of Karlowitz (26 January 1699). The Peace of Karlowitz recognised Transylvania as a Habsburg possession but left the Banat of Timișoara to the Ottomans, with the border on the Mureș.

On the map: Wallachia: Oltenia, Muntenia (under Ottoman suzerainty); Moldavia: Moldavia west of the Prut, southern Bukovina, northern Bukovina, the Herța region, Bessarabia (centre and north), southern Bessarabia (Cahul) (under Ottoman suzerainty); The Ottoman Empire: the Hotin region (north, now in Ukraine), the Hotin region (south, now in Moldova), southern Bessarabia (Izmail, Bolhrad), eastern Budjak (Cetatea Albă), south-eastern Bessarabia (now in Moldova), northern Dobruja, the Cadrilater (southern Dobruja); The Habsburg Monarchy: Transylvania (south), Transylvania (north), Crișana (south), Crișana and Maramureș (north), the Banat plain, the Banat highlands.

• Union with Rome (1697–1701). Between 1697 and 1701 part of Transylvania's Romanian Orthodox clergy, led by Bishops Teofil and Atanasie Anghel, accepted union with Rome in exchange for the rights of the Catholic clergy; this created the Greek Catholic Church.
• Inochentie Micu's synod (June–July 1744). In 1744 the Greek Catholic bishop Inochentie Micu-Klein called a synod at Blaj of Romanian priests, nobles and peasants to demand political rights for the Romanians; summoned to Vienna, he went into exile in Rome.

On the map: The Habsburg Monarchy: Oltenia, Transylvania (south), Transylvania (north), Crișana (south), Crișana and Maramureș (north), the Banat plain, the Banat highlands; Wallachia: Muntenia (under Ottoman suzerainty); Moldavia: Moldavia west of the Prut, southern Bukovina, northern Bukovina, the Herța region, Bessarabia (centre and north), southern Bessarabia (Cahul) (under Ottoman suzerainty); The Ottoman Empire: the Hotin region (north, now in Ukraine), the Hotin region (south, now in Moldova), southern Bessarabia (Izmail, Bolhrad), eastern Budjak (Cetatea Albă), south-eastern Bessarabia (now in Moldova), northern Dobruja, the Cadrilater (southern Dobruja).

• Timișoara surrenders (13 October 1716). After a 43-day siege, the Ottoman garrison of Timișoara surrendered on 13 October 1716 to the imperial army of Prince Eugene of Savoy, ending Ottoman rule that had begun in 1552.
• Peace of Passarowitz (21 July 1718). By the Peace of Passarowitz the Porte ceded to the emperor the Banat of Timișoara and Wallachia west of the Olt (Oltenia); the Olt river became the border.
• Craiova, imperial Oltenia (1718–1739). From 1718 to 1739 Oltenia was a Habsburg province run from Craiova by a ban appointed by the emperor, under the supervision of the general at Sibiu; Charles VI styled himself prince of Wallachia this side of the Olt.
• Peace of Belgrade (18 September 1739). By the Peace of Belgrade the emperor returned to the Porte 'all of Austrian Wallachia', and Oltenia rejoined Wallachia; the Banat stayed Austrian.

On the map: Wallachia: Oltenia, Muntenia (under Ottoman suzerainty); Moldavia: Moldavia west of the Prut, the Herța region, Bessarabia (centre and north), southern Bessarabia (Cahul) (under Ottoman suzerainty); The Habsburg Monarchy: southern Bukovina, northern Bukovina, Transylvania (south), Transylvania (north), Crișana (south), Crișana and Maramureș (north), the Banat plain, the Banat highlands; The Ottoman Empire: the Hotin region (north, now in Ukraine), the Hotin region (south, now in Moldova), southern Bessarabia (Izmail, Bolhrad), eastern Budjak (Cetatea Albă), south-eastern Bessarabia (now in Moldova), northern Dobruja, the Cadrilater (southern Dobruja).

• Colonising the Banat (waves: 1718–1726, 1763–1772, 1782–1788). The Habsburg authorities brought settlers from south-western Germany ('Swabians') to the Banat and other Danubian plains, in large waves: from the conquest to 1726, then in 1763–1772 and 1782–1788.
• Năsăud border regiment (1762–1764 (founded)). From 1762 Vienna turned the Romanian villages of the Năsăud district into a military frontier: peasants became free border guards, on condition that they served and joined the Greek Catholic Church. The 2nd Romanian Regiment was based here.
• Orlat border regiment (from 1762). Orlat, near Sibiu, was the base of the 1st Romanian Border Regiment, with a Latin–German school and, from 1770, an army paper mill.
• Siculeni massacre (7 January 1764). On 7 January 1764 imperial troops attacked the camp of Székelys refusing enrolment in the frontier at Siculeni (Mádéfalva), killing between 200 and 400 people, depending on the source.
• The Banat joins Hungary (1778–1779). The Banat of Timișoara, governed directly from Vienna since 1718, was returned to the Kingdom of Hungary by Maria Theresa's decision of 1778; the restored counties received arms in 1779. The southern military frontier stayed under military rule until 1872.

On the map: Wallachia: Oltenia, Muntenia (under Ottoman suzerainty); Moldavia: Moldavia west of the Prut, the Herța region, Bessarabia (centre and north), southern Bessarabia (Cahul) (under Ottoman suzerainty); The Habsburg Monarchy: southern Bukovina, northern Bukovina, Transylvania (south), Transylvania (north), Crișana (south), Crișana and Maramureș (north), the Banat plain, the Banat highlands; The Ottoman Empire: the Hotin region (north, now in Ukraine), the Hotin region (south, now in Moldova), southern Bessarabia (Izmail, Bolhrad), eastern Budjak (Cetatea Albă), south-eastern Bessarabia (now in Moldova), northern Dobruja, the Cadrilater (southern Dobruja).

• Horea's revolt (31 October – 7 December 1784). On 31 October 1784 Romanian peasants gathered at Mesteacăn, near Brad, clashed with county officials; the revolt led by Horea, Cloșca and Crișan spread through Zarand and the Apuseni Mountains and was defeated on 7 December.
• Horea and Cloșca executed (February 1785). Horea and Cloșca were broken on the wheel at Alba Iulia before peasants brought to watch; Crișan had killed himself in prison.
• Cluj becomes the capital (1790). In 1790 the Gubernium, Transylvania's government, moved from Sibiu to Cluj, which became the province's capital.
• Supplex Libellus Valachorum (March 1791). In 1791 Transylvania's Romanian intellectuals asked Emperor Leopold II, in the Supplex Libellus Valachorum, to recognise the Romanians as the country's fourth 'nation'; the diet at Cluj rejected the petition.

On the map: Wallachia: Oltenia, Muntenia (under Ottoman suzerainty); Moldavia: Moldavia west of the Prut, the Herța region (under Ottoman suzerainty); The Habsburg Monarchy: southern Bukovina, northern Bukovina, Transylvania (south), Transylvania (north), Crișana (south), Crișana and Maramureș (north), the Banat plain, the Banat highlands; The Russian Empire: the Hotin region (north, now in Ukraine), the Hotin region (south, now in Moldova), Bessarabia (centre and north), southern Bessarabia (Cahul), southern Bessarabia (Izmail, Bolhrad), eastern Budjak (Cetatea Albă), south-eastern Bessarabia (now in Moldova); The Ottoman Empire: northern Dobruja, the Cadrilater (southern Dobruja).

• Peace of Bucharest (16/28 May 1812). By the Peace of Bucharest the Porte ceded to Russia the lands east of the Prut: Moldavian districts and raias ruled directly by the Ottomans. The border followed the Prut to the Danube, then the Kilia arm to the sea.

On the map: Wallachia: Oltenia, Muntenia (under Ottoman suzerainty); Moldavia: Moldavia west of the Prut, the Herța region, southern Bessarabia (Cahul), southern Bessarabia (Izmail, Bolhrad) (under Ottoman suzerainty); The Habsburg Monarchy: southern Bukovina, northern Bukovina, Transylvania (south), Transylvania (north), Crișana (south), Crișana and Maramureș (north), the Banat plain, the Banat highlands; The Russian Empire: the Hotin region (north, now in Ukraine), the Hotin region (south, now in Moldova), Bessarabia (centre and north), eastern Budjak (Cetatea Albă), south-eastern Bessarabia (now in Moldova); The Ottoman Empire: northern Dobruja, the Cadrilater (southern Dobruja).

• Slaves freed, Wallachia (22 March 1843 / 11 February 1847). In Wallachia the state's Roma slaves were freed by a law of March 1843, and those of the monasteries, bishoprics and other public institutions by a law of February 1847, proposed by Prince Gheorghe Bibescu.
• Slaves freed, Moldavia (31 January – 14 February 1844). In Moldavia, at the proposal of Prince Mihail Sturdza, laws of January–February 1844 freed the Roma slaves of the Metropolitanate, the bishoprics, the monasteries and the state.
• End of slavery in Moldavia (10/22 December 1855). On 10/22 December 1855 Moldavia's assembly voted, at Prince Grigore Alexandru Ghica's proposal, the law freeing the last Roma slaves, those held by private owners, with compensation for the owners.
• End of slavery in Wallachia (8/20 February 1856). On 8/20 February 1856, under Prince Barbu Știrbei, a law freed the Roma slaves of private owners in Wallachia. Between 1843 and 1856 about 250,000 people in all were freed in the two principalities.

On the map: Wallachia: Oltenia, Muntenia (under Ottoman suzerainty); Moldavia: Moldavia west of the Prut, southern Bukovina, northern Bukovina, the Herța region, the Hotin region (north, now in Ukraine), the Hotin region (south, now in Moldova), Bessarabia (centre and north), southern Bessarabia (Cahul) (under Ottoman suzerainty); The Ottoman Empire: southern Bessarabia (Izmail, Bolhrad), eastern Budjak (Cetatea Albă), south-eastern Bessarabia (now in Moldova), northern Dobruja, the Cadrilater (southern Dobruja), the Banat plain, the Banat highlands; The Habsburg Monarchy: Transylvania (south), Transylvania (north), Crișana (south), Crișana and Maramureș (north).

• Varlaam's Cazania, Iași (1643). In 1643, under Vasile Lupu, the princely press at the Three Hierarchs monastery in Iași printed Metropolitan Varlaam's Cazania, a book of sermons. In Wallachia, Matei Basarab's presses at Târgoviște printed law books such as 'Îndreptarea legii' (1652).
• Bucharest becomes the capital (1659). In 1659 Prince Gheorghe Ghica demolished the princely court at Târgoviște on the Porte's order, and Bucharest became the capital of Wallachia.
• Battle of Stănilești (7/18 – 11/22 July 1711). Dimitrie Cantemir allied with Peter the Great against the Porte (Lutsk, April 1711), but the Russian–Moldavian army was surrounded by the Ottomans at Stănilești on the Prut in July 1711; Cantemir went into exile in Russia.

On the map: Wallachia: Oltenia, Muntenia (under Ottoman suzerainty); Moldavia: Moldavia west of the Prut, the Herța region, Bessarabia (centre and north), southern Bessarabia (Cahul) (under Ottoman suzerainty); The Habsburg Monarchy: southern Bukovina, northern Bukovina, Transylvania (south), Transylvania (north), Crișana (south), Crișana and Maramureș (north), the Banat plain, the Banat highlands; The Ottoman Empire: the Hotin region (north, now in Ukraine), the Hotin region (south, now in Moldova), southern Bessarabia (Izmail, Bolhrad), eastern Budjak (Cetatea Albă), south-eastern Bessarabia (now in Moldova), northern Dobruja, the Cadrilater (southern Dobruja).

• The Phanariot princes (1711–1821 (Wallachia from 1716)). From 1711 in Moldavia and from 1716 in Wallachia, the Porte stopped choosing princes from the country's boyars and appointed them from the families of the Phanar, the Greek quarter of Constantinople. The Phanariot regime lasted until 1821.
• End of rumânie and vecinie (5 August 1746 (Wallachia) / 6 April 1749 (Moldavia)). Prince Constantin Mavrocordat abolished the peasants' personal bondage to a lord: rumânie in Wallachia (5 August 1746) and vecinie in Moldavia (6 April 1749). Peasants still owed labour and dues to the estate owner.
• Hotin becomes a raia (1713 (fortress) / 1715 (raia)). In 1713 the Ottomans took over Hotin fortress, and in 1715 the district became a raia, a territory ruled directly by the Ottomans, removed from the authority of Moldavia's prince.
• Peace of Küçük Kaynarca (10/21 July 1774). By the peace concluded in the camp near the village of Küçük Kaynarca, Russia returned Wallachia and Moldavia to the Porte, but under conditions written into the treaty: amnesty, freedom of religion and two years without tribute.
• Bukovina annexed by Austria (31 August 1774 – 7 May 1775). Austrian troops entered Cernăuți on 31 August 1774; by the Convention of Constantinople of 7 May 1775 the Porte ceded northern Moldavia, thereafter called Bukovina, with Suceava and Cernăuți, to Austria.

On the map: Wallachia: Oltenia, Muntenia (under Ottoman suzerainty); Moldavia: Moldavia west of the Prut, the Herța region (under Ottoman suzerainty); The Habsburg Monarchy: southern Bukovina, northern Bukovina, Transylvania (south), Transylvania (north), Crișana (south), Crișana and Maramureș (north), the Banat plain, the Banat highlands; The Russian Empire: the Hotin region (north, now in Ukraine), the Hotin region (south, now in Moldova), Bessarabia (centre and north), southern Bessarabia (Cahul), southern Bessarabia (Izmail, Bolhrad), eastern Budjak (Cetatea Albă), south-eastern Bessarabia (now in Moldova); The Ottoman Empire: northern Dobruja, the Cadrilater (southern Dobruja).

• Padeș proclamation (January 1821). At Padeș, in Gorj, Tudor Vladimirescu called people to rise against the boyars and the Phanariot princes in January 1821; in March he entered Bucharest.
• Peace of Adrianople (2/14 September 1829). The Peace of Adrianople returned to Wallachia the Turkish towns on the Danube's left bank (Brăila, Giurgiu, Turnu) and moved the border to the river's main channel. The principalities gained free trade and princes for life.
• Organic Regulations (July 1831 (Wallachia) / January 1832 (Moldavia)). Under the Russian occupation led by General Pavel Kiselyov, the Organic Regulations gave Wallachia and Moldavia nearly identical organic laws, confirmed by the Porte.

On the map: Wallachia: Oltenia, Muntenia (under Ottoman suzerainty); Moldavia: Moldavia west of the Prut, the Herța region (under Ottoman suzerainty); The Habsburg Monarchy: southern Bukovina, northern Bukovina, Transylvania (south), Transylvania (north), Crișana (south), Crișana and Maramureș (north), the Banat plain, the Banat highlands; The Russian Empire: the Hotin region (north, now in Ukraine), the Hotin region (south, now in Moldova), Bessarabia (centre and north), southern Bessarabia (Cahul), southern Bessarabia (Izmail, Bolhrad), eastern Budjak (Cetatea Albă), south-eastern Bessarabia (now in Moldova); The Ottoman Empire: northern Dobruja, the Cadrilater (southern Dobruja).

• Iași petition (27 March / 8 April 1848). On 27 March/8 April 1848 a meeting of boyars and intellectuals at the Hotel Petersburg in Iași drew up a petition for reforms to Prince Mihail Sturdza.
• Blaj assembly (3/15 May 1848). On 3/15 May 1848 between 30,000 and 40,000 people, by observers' estimates, gathered at Blaj. The assembly demanded the abolition of serfdom, recognition of the Romanians as a nation and a delay to Transylvania's union with Hungary.
• Islaz Proclamation (9/21 June 1848). On 9/21 June 1848 at Islaz, Wallachian revolutionaries read out a 22-point proclamation calling, among other things, for the freeing of Roma slaves with compensation.
• Dealul Spirii (13/25 September 1848). On 13/25 September 1848 Bucharest's defenders fought Ottoman troops, sent to restore order, on Dealul Spirii; two days later the Russian army entered Wallachia and the revolution was over.
• Aiud destroyed (8–9 January 1849). In January 1849 Romanian insurgents burned Aiud, with its college and library, and killed Hungarian townspeople; Transylvania's civil war produced massacres on both sides.
• Apuseni Mountains, 1849 (May 1849). In spring 1849 talks between the Hungarian government and Avram Iancu broke down. After the Hungarian commander Imre Hatvani's troops entered Abrud, two Romanian leaders, Dobra and Buteanu, were killed, and Iancu's forces burned Abrud and Roșia.

On the map: Wallachia: Oltenia, Muntenia (under Ottoman suzerainty); Moldavia: Moldavia west of the Prut, the Herța region, southern Bessarabia (Cahul), southern Bessarabia (Izmail, Bolhrad) (under Ottoman suzerainty); The Habsburg Monarchy: southern Bukovina, northern Bukovina, Transylvania (south), Transylvania (north), Crișana (south), Crișana and Maramureș (north), the Banat plain, the Banat highlands; The Russian Empire: the Hotin region (north, now in Ukraine), the Hotin region (south, now in Moldova), Bessarabia (centre and north), eastern Budjak (Cetatea Albă), south-eastern Bessarabia (now in Moldova); The Ottoman Empire: northern Dobruja, the Cadrilater (southern Dobruja).

• S. Bessarabia back to Moldavia (30 March 1856 (treaty) – March 1857 (handover)). After the Crimean War the Treaty of Paris made Russia cede southern Bessarabia (Cahul, Bolgrad, Ismail) to Moldavia; the actual handover took place in March 1857.
• European Danube Commission (from 1856). The Treaty of Paris created the European Commission of the Danube, based at Galați, to clear the river's mouths and keep navigation free.
• Ad hoc divans ask for union (7/19 and 9/21 October 1857). The ad hoc assemblies elected in 1857 at the Great Powers' request voted for the union of Moldavia and Wallachia under a foreign prince: Iași on 7/19 October (81 votes to 2), Bucharest on 9/21 October, unanimously.
• Paris Convention (7/19 August 1858). The Paris Convention created the 'United Principalities of Moldavia and Wallachia', under Ottoman suzerainty, with two princes elected for life, two assemblies and a joint Central Commission at Focșani.

On the map: The United Principalities: Oltenia, Muntenia, Moldavia west of the Prut, the Herța region, southern Bessarabia (Cahul), southern Bessarabia (Izmail, Bolhrad) (under Ottoman suzerainty); The Habsburg Monarchy: southern Bukovina, northern Bukovina, Transylvania (south), Transylvania (north), Crișana (south), Crișana and Maramureș (north), the Banat plain, the Banat highlands; The Russian Empire: the Hotin region (north, now in Ukraine), the Hotin region (south, now in Moldova), Bessarabia (centre and north), eastern Budjak (Cetatea Albă), south-eastern Bessarabia (now in Moldova); The Ottoman Empire: northern Dobruja, the Cadrilater (southern Dobruja).

• Cuza elected at Iași (5/17 January 1859). Moldavia's elective assembly unanimously elects Alexandru Ioan Cuza as prince.
• Cuza elected at Bucharest (24 January/5 February 1859). Wallachia's assembly also elects Cuza, so the two principalities now share one prince.
• Central Commission, Focșani (1859–1862). A joint commission set up by the 1858 Paris Convention sits at Focșani, on the border between the principalities. It is abolished in 1862.

On the map: Romania: Oltenia, Muntenia, Moldavia west of the Prut, the Herța region, southern Bessarabia (Cahul), southern Bessarabia (Izmail, Bolhrad) (under Ottoman suzerainty); The Habsburg Monarchy: southern Bukovina, northern Bukovina, Transylvania (south), Transylvania (north), Crișana (south), Crișana and Maramureș (north), the Banat plain, the Banat highlands; The Russian Empire: the Hotin region (north, now in Ukraine), the Hotin region (south, now in Moldova), Bessarabia (centre and north), eastern Budjak (Cetatea Albă), south-eastern Bessarabia (now in Moldova); The Ottoman Empire: northern Dobruja, the Cadrilater (southern Dobruja).

• One assembly, one government (22 January/3 February – 24 January/5 February 1862). On 22 January/3 February 1862 a single government is formed under Barbu Catargiu, and on 24 January/5 February a single assembly for both principalities meets at Bucharest.
• Monastic estates secularised (13/25 December 1863). The assembly votes to transfer monastic estates to the state. Estimates of their extent range from over a quarter to nearly a third of the country.
• The rural law (14/26 August 1864). The rural law abolishes the corvée, the unpaid labour peasants owed the landowner. Peasant families receive land in ownership, sized by the number of draught animals they own.

On the map: Romania: Oltenia, Muntenia, Moldavia west of the Prut, the Herța region, southern Bessarabia (Cahul), southern Bessarabia (Izmail, Bolhrad) (under Ottoman suzerainty); The Habsburg Monarchy: southern Bukovina, northern Bukovina, Transylvania (south), Transylvania (north), Crișana (south), Crișana and Maramureș (north), the Banat plain, the Banat highlands; The Russian Empire: the Hotin region (north, now in Ukraine), the Hotin region (south, now in Moldova), Bessarabia (centre and north), eastern Budjak (Cetatea Albă), south-eastern Bessarabia (now in Moldova); The Ottoman Empire: northern Dobruja, the Cadrilater (southern Dobruja).

• Cuza forced to abdicate (11/23 February 1866). Conspiring officers force Cuza to sign his abdication. Power passes to a princely lieutenancy, a council that rules in the prince's place.
• Carol lands at Severin (8/20 May 1866). Carol of Hohenzollern-Sigmaringen, chosen by plebiscite, enters the country by the Danube at Turnu Severin and takes the oath at Bucharest two days later.
• Constitution names Romania (29 June/11 July – 1/13 July 1866). The constitution, adopted on 29 June/11 July and promulgated on 1/13 July 1866, says in Article 1 that the United Principalities form a single indivisible state named Romania.
• Firman of investiture (October 1866). At Constantinople the Sultan, still suzerain, grants Carol the firman of investiture and accepts hereditary succession.

On the map: Romania: Oltenia, Muntenia, Moldavia west of the Prut, the Herța region, southern Bessarabia (Cahul), southern Bessarabia (Izmail, Bolhrad) (under Ottoman suzerainty); Austria-Hungary: southern Bukovina, northern Bukovina, Transylvania (south), Transylvania (north), Crișana (south), Crișana and Maramureș (north), the Banat plain, the Banat highlands; The Russian Empire: the Hotin region (north, now in Ukraine), the Hotin region (south, now in Moldova), Bessarabia (centre and north), eastern Budjak (Cetatea Albă), south-eastern Bessarabia (now in Moldova); The Ottoman Empire: northern Dobruja, the Cadrilater (southern Dobruja).

• Transylvanian diet dissolved (20 June 1867). After the Austro-Hungarian Compromise, the Cluj diet, Transylvania's assembly, is dissolved by royal decree. Transylvania loses its separate status.
• Act XLIII of 1868 (1868). The Budapest parliament regulates Transylvania's union with Hungary by law. In 1868 it also passes the nationalities law, which the Hungarian Academy's history calls liberal and the Romanian Memorandum of 1892 called equal only in its title.

On the map: Romania: Oltenia, Muntenia, Moldavia west of the Prut, the Herța region, southern Bessarabia (Cahul), southern Bessarabia (Izmail, Bolhrad) (under Ottoman suzerainty); Austria-Hungary: southern Bukovina, northern Bukovina, Transylvania (south), Transylvania (north), Crișana (south), Crișana and Maramureș (north), the Banat plain, the Banat highlands; The Russian Empire: the Hotin region (north, now in Ukraine), the Hotin region (south, now in Moldova), Bessarabia (centre and north), eastern Budjak (Cetatea Albă), south-eastern Bessarabia (now in Moldova); The Ottoman Empire: northern Dobruja, the Cadrilater (southern Dobruja).

• Independence proclaimed (9/21 May 1877). The parliament at Bucharest proclaims Romania's independence from the Ottoman Empire.
• Plevna and Grivița (30 August/11 September – 28 November/10 December 1877). Romanian troops take the Grivița redoubt in the assault of 30 August/11 September. On 28 November/10 December Osman Pasha surrenders Plevna to the Romanian colonel Mihail Cerchez and the Russian general Ganetsky.

On the map: Romania: Oltenia, Muntenia, Moldavia west of the Prut, the Herța region, northern Dobruja; Austria-Hungary: southern Bukovina, northern Bukovina, Transylvania (south), Transylvania (north), Crișana (south), Crișana and Maramureș (north), the Banat plain, the Banat highlands; The Russian Empire: the Hotin region (north, now in Ukraine), the Hotin region (south, now in Moldova), Bessarabia (centre and north), southern Bessarabia (Cahul), southern Bessarabia (Izmail, Bolhrad), eastern Budjak (Cetatea Albă), south-eastern Bessarabia (now in Moldova); Bulgaria: the Cadrilater (southern Dobruja) (under Ottoman suzerainty).

• Russia regains south Bessarabia (13 July 1878). The Treaty of Berlin obliges Romania to hand back to Russia the south of Bessarabia, which Moldavia had received in 1856: the districts of Cahul, Bolgrad and Ismail.
• Northern Dobruja to Romania (13 July 1878; takeover 14/26 November 1878). The Treaty of Berlin adds to Romania the Danube Delta, Snake Island and the sanjak of Tulcea, an Ottoman province, down to a line from east of Silistra to south of Mangalia. The Romanian army enters Dobruja in November 1878.
• Snake Island (13 July 1878). Snake Island is named explicitly in Article 46 of the Treaty of Berlin, among the territories added to Romania.
• The 1878 border (1878–1913). The Romanian–Bulgarian border runs from east of Silistra to the Black Sea south of Mangalia. The town of Silistra stays in Bulgaria.
• Southern Dobruja in Bulgaria (13 July 1878). The Treaty of Berlin makes Bulgaria an autonomous principality that pays tribute to the Sultan. Southern Dobruja, with Silistra, falls inside it.
• Romania becomes a kingdom (14/26 March 1881; coronation 10/22 May 1881). Parliament raises the principality to a kingdom, and Carol is crowned with a crown made of steel from a cannon captured at Plevna.

On the map: Romania: Oltenia, Muntenia, Moldavia west of the Prut, the Herța region, northern Dobruja; Austria-Hungary: southern Bukovina, northern Bukovina, Transylvania (south), Transylvania (north), Crișana (south), Crișana and Maramureș (north), the Banat plain, the Banat highlands; The Russian Empire: the Hotin region (north, now in Ukraine), the Hotin region (south, now in Moldova), Bessarabia (centre and north), southern Bessarabia (Cahul), southern Bessarabia (Izmail, Bolhrad), eastern Budjak (Cetatea Albă), south-eastern Bessarabia (now in Moldova); Bulgaria: the Cadrilater (southern Dobruja) (under Ottoman suzerainty).

• The Memorandum in Vienna (May 1892). A delegation of 237 Transylvanian Romanians (about 300 in other accounts) takes a petition to the emperor in Vienna. It is forwarded unopened to Budapest.
• The Memorandum trial (7–25 May 1894). At Cluj, 14 of the petition's authors are convicted of incitement through the press; sentences range from two months to five years, the heaviest going to Vasile Lucaciu.

On the map: Romania: Oltenia, Muntenia, Moldavia west of the Prut, the Herța region, northern Dobruja; Austria-Hungary: southern Bukovina, northern Bukovina, Transylvania (south), Transylvania (north), Crișana (south), Crișana and Maramureș (north), the Banat plain, the Banat highlands; The Russian Empire: the Hotin region (north, now in Ukraine), the Hotin region (south, now in Moldova), Bessarabia (centre and north), southern Bessarabia (Cahul), southern Bessarabia (Izmail, Bolhrad), eastern Budjak (Cetatea Albă), south-eastern Bessarabia (now in Moldova); Bulgaria: the Cadrilater (southern Dobruja) (under Ottoman suzerainty).

• Flămânzi: the revolt begins (8/21 February 1907). The peasant revolt begins at Flămânzi, in Botoșani county, on estates leased by the Fischer trust. In northern Moldavia, where many leaseholders were Jewish, it first turns against them. By March it has spread to Oltenia and Muntenia.
• How many died in 1907? (March–April 1907). The government reported 419 or 421 dead, for 28 March–5 April only. A 1910 report by Major Gheorghe Dabija counted 1,786 peasants shot. The newspaper Dimineața wrote 11,000, a number later adopted by communist historiography and still cited by many historians. Historian Ion Bulei estimates 2,000–3,000.

On the map: Romania: Oltenia, Muntenia, Moldavia west of the Prut, the Herța region, northern Dobruja, the Cadrilater (southern Dobruja); Austria-Hungary: southern Bukovina, northern Bukovina, Transylvania (south), Transylvania (north), Crișana (south), Crișana and Maramureș (north), the Banat plain, the Banat highlands; The Russian Empire: the Hotin region (north, now in Ukraine), the Hotin region (south, now in Moldova), Bessarabia (centre and north), southern Bessarabia (Cahul), southern Bessarabia (Izmail, Bolhrad), eastern Budjak (Cetatea Albă), south-eastern Bessarabia (now in Moldova).

• Peace of Bucharest, 1913 (28 July/10 August 1913). After the Second Balkan War, Bulgaria cedes Southern Dobruja to Romania, up to a line from Tutrakan to south of Ekrene.
• The 1913 border (1913). The new border starts on the Danube above Tutrakan and reaches the Black Sea south of Ekrene.

On the map: Romania: Oltenia, Muntenia, Moldavia west of the Prut, the Herța region, northern Dobruja, the Cadrilater (southern Dobruja); Austria-Hungary: southern Bukovina, northern Bukovina, Transylvania (south), Transylvania (north), Crișana (south), Crișana and Maramureș (north), the Banat plain, the Banat highlands; The Russian Empire: the Hotin region (north, now in Ukraine), the Hotin region (south, now in Moldova), Bessarabia (centre and north), southern Bessarabia (Cahul), southern Bessarabia (Izmail, Bolhrad), eastern Budjak (Cetatea Albă), south-eastern Bessarabia (now in Moldova).

• Romania enters the war (14/27 August 1916; Brașov, 16/29 August). Romania declares war on Austria-Hungary and crosses the Carpathians. On 16/29 August Romanian troops enter a Brașov deserted by its people.
• Tutrakan (24 August/6 September 1916). The Romanian garrison at Tutrakan surrenders to Bulgarian and German troops; Southern Dobruja is lost.
• Bucharest occupied (23 November/6 December 1916). Central Powers armies occupy Bucharest; the king, government and parliament move to Iași.
• Iași, wartime capital (December 1916 – December 1918). For two years the Romanian state is run from Iași. The Central Powers hold about two thirds of the country, leaving the state with western Moldavia.

On the map: Romania: Oltenia, Muntenia, Moldavia west of the Prut, the Herța region, northern Dobruja, the Cadrilater (southern Dobruja); Austria-Hungary: southern Bukovina, northern Bukovina, Transylvania (south), Transylvania (north), Crișana (south), Crișana and Maramureș (north), the Banat plain, the Banat highlands; The Moldavian Democratic Republic: the Hotin region (north, now in Ukraine), the Hotin region (south, now in Moldova), Bessarabia (centre and north), southern Bessarabia (Cahul), southern Bessarabia (Izmail, Bolhrad), eastern Budjak (Cetatea Albă), south-eastern Bessarabia (now in Moldova).

• Mărăști (11/24 July – 19 July/1 August 1917). The Romanian 2nd Army, with Russian troops, attacks at Mărăști and pushes the front back.
• Mărășești (24 July/6 August – 21 August/3 September 1917). Mackensen's offensive is stopped at Mărășești, at a cost of 27,410 Romanian casualties, 5,125 of them killed. The Moldavian front holds until the end of the war.
• Oituz (26 July/8 August – 9/22 August 1917). At Oituz, Romanian troops hold the pass towards the Trotuș valley against the Austro-German attack.

On the map: Romania: Oltenia, Muntenia, Moldavia west of the Prut, the Herța region, the Hotin region (north, now in Ukraine), the Hotin region (south, now in Moldova), Bessarabia (centre and north), southern Bessarabia (Cahul), southern Bessarabia (Izmail, Bolhrad), eastern Budjak (Cetatea Albă), south-eastern Bessarabia (now in Moldova), northern Dobruja, the Cadrilater (southern Dobruja); Austria-Hungary: southern Bukovina, northern Bukovina, Transylvania (south), Transylvania (north), Crișana (south), Crișana and Maramureș (north), the Banat plain, the Banat highlands.

• Preliminary peace, Buftea (20 February/5 March 1918). Isolated after Russia leaves the war, Romania accepts the Central Powers' preliminary terms at Buftea.
• Peace of Bucharest, 1918 (24 April/7 May 1918). The Marghiloman government signs the peace, under which Romania cedes Dobruja and the Carpathian crests. Parliament ratifies it, but King Ferdinand does not promulgate it, so the treaty never takes effect.

On the map: Romania: Oltenia, Muntenia, Moldavia west of the Prut, the Herța region, the Hotin region (north, now in Ukraine), the Hotin region (south, now in Moldova), Bessarabia (centre and north), southern Bessarabia (Cahul), southern Bessarabia (Izmail, Bolhrad), eastern Budjak (Cetatea Albă), south-eastern Bessarabia (now in Moldova), northern Dobruja, the Cadrilater (southern Dobruja); Austria-Hungary: southern Bukovina, northern Bukovina, Transylvania (south), Transylvania (north), Crișana (south), Crișana and Maramureș (north), the Banat plain, the Banat highlands.

• Romanian army in Chișinău (January 1918). At the request of part of the Sfatul Țării, Bessarabia's assembly, the Romanian army crosses the Prut and drives Bolshevik units out of Chișinău. Unionists speak of order restored; critics say the army was not politically neutral.
• Sfatul Țării votes union (27 March/9 April 1918). Of 138 deputies, 86 vote for Bessarabia's union with Romania, on condition of autonomy; 3 vote against, 36 abstain and 13 are absent. The deputies had chosen an open vote by 82 to 27, and the Romanian army was in the city.
• Union without conditions (27 November/10 December 1918). In a final sitting the Sfatul Țării drops the conditions of the March union and then dissolves itself. Critics note that only 44 members attended.

On the map: Romania: Oltenia, Muntenia, Moldavia west of the Prut, southern Bukovina, northern Bukovina, the Herța region, the Hotin region (north, now in Ukraine), the Hotin region (south, now in Moldova), Bessarabia (centre and north), southern Bessarabia (Cahul), southern Bessarabia (Izmail, Bolhrad), eastern Budjak (Cetatea Albă), south-eastern Bessarabia (now in Moldova), northern Dobruja, the Cadrilater (southern Dobruja), Transylvania (south), Transylvania (north), Crișana (south), Crișana and Maramureș (north), the Banat plain, the Banat highlands.

• Romanian army in Cernăuți (29 October/11 November 1918). At the Romanian National Council's request, the Romanian 8th Division enters Cernăuți after the Ukrainian committee has withdrawn.
• General Congress of Bukovina (15/28 November 1918). In the synod hall of the Metropolitan Palace in Cernăuți, the 100 delegates present vote unanimously for Bukovina's union with Romania. The Ukrainian National Council and the Jewish National Council refuse to take part.
• Belgrade armistice (13 November 1918). The armistice signed by the Károlyi government leaves Hungary under Budapest's administration but lets Entente troops advance to the Mureș.
• Alba Iulia assembly (18 November/1 December 1918). 1,228 delegates of the Romanians of Transylvania, the Banat, Crișana and Maramureș vote for union with Romania. The resolution promises full national freedom to the other peoples.
• Székely assembly (28 November 1918). At Târgu Mureș a Székely assembly demands that Hungary's territorial integrity be kept.
• Cluj: Hungarian assembly (22–24 December 1918). On 22 December about 40,000 people at Cluj demand that Transylvania stay in Hungary. The Romanian army enters the city on 23 or 24 December.
• Saxons at Mediaș (8 January 1919). The Saxon National Council, meeting at Mediaș, declares that the Saxons accept Transylvania's union with Romania and asks for guarantees of their rights. In November 1918 the same council had preferred Hungary.
• Serbian army in Timișoara (17 November 1918 – 27 July 1919). The Serbian army occupies Timișoara and most of the Banat. From January 1919 French troops take over the eastern part.
• Romanian rule in Timișoara (3 August 1919). After the Serbian troops withdraw, the first Romanian army units enter Timișoara and Aurel Cosma takes over as prefect.
• King returns to Bucharest (18 November/1 December 1918). On the same day as the Alba Iulia assembly, King Ferdinand re-enters Bucharest at the head of the army.

On the map: Romania: Oltenia, Muntenia, Moldavia west of the Prut, southern Bukovina, northern Bukovina, the Herța region, the Hotin region (north, now in Ukraine), the Hotin region (south, now in Moldova), Bessarabia (centre and north), southern Bessarabia (Cahul), southern Bessarabia (Izmail, Bolhrad), eastern Budjak (Cetatea Albă), south-eastern Bessarabia (now in Moldova), northern Dobruja, the Cadrilater (southern Dobruja), Transylvania (south), Transylvania (north); Hungary: Crișana (south), Crișana and Maramureș (north), the Banat plain, the Banat highlands.

• Oradea, April 1919 (19–20 April 1919). The Romanian army entered Carei on 19 April and Oradea and Salonta on 20 April 1919, going past the demarcation line set by the Allies.
• Timișoara, August 1919 (27 July – 3 August 1919). Serbian troops left Timișoara on 27 July 1919; Romanian administration was decreed the next day, and the Romanian army entered the city on 3 August.
• Romanian troops in Budapest (3–4 August – 14 November 1919). Romanian cavalry entered Budapest on the evening of 3 August 1919; the Romanian army held the city until it evacuated on 14 November 1919.

On the map: Romania: Oltenia, Muntenia, Moldavia west of the Prut, southern Bukovina, northern Bukovina, the Herța region, the Hotin region (north, now in Ukraine), the Hotin region (south, now in Moldova), Bessarabia (centre and north), southern Bessarabia (Cahul), southern Bessarabia (Izmail, Bolhrad), eastern Budjak (Cetatea Albă), south-eastern Bessarabia (now in Moldova), northern Dobruja, the Cadrilater (southern Dobruja), Transylvania (south), Transylvania (north), Crișana (south), Crișana and Maramureș (north), the Banat plain, the Banat highlands.

• Treaty of Saint-Germain (10 September 1919). By the Treaty of Saint-Germain, signed on 10 September 1919 and in force from 16 July 1920, Austria renounced Bukovina in favour of Romania.
• Treaty of Neuilly (27 November 1919). The peace treaty with Bulgaria, signed at Neuilly on 27 November 1919, left the Cadrilater (southern Dobruja) in Romania, on the 1913 border.
• Treaty of Trianon (4 June 1920). The Treaty of Trianon, signed on 4 June 1920 and in force from 26 July 1921, fixed the Romanian–Hungarian border.
• Paris Protocol (28 October 1920). In the Paris Protocol of 28 October 1920, France, Britain, Italy and Japan recognised the union of Bessarabia with Romania; Japan never ratified it, so it never came into force.

On the map: Romania: Oltenia, Muntenia, Moldavia west of the Prut, southern Bukovina, northern Bukovina, the Herța region, the Hotin region (north, now in Ukraine), the Hotin region (south, now in Moldova), Bessarabia (centre and north), southern Bessarabia (Cahul), southern Bessarabia (Izmail, Bolhrad), eastern Budjak (Cetatea Albă), south-eastern Bessarabia (now in Moldova), northern Dobruja, the Cadrilater (southern Dobruja), Transylvania (south), Transylvania (north), Crișana (south), Crișana and Maramureș (north), the Banat plain, the Banat highlands.

• 1930 census (29 December 1930). The census of 29 December 1930 counted 18,057,028 inhabitants in Greater Romania.
• Land reform (1920–1921). The land reform was voted province by province: Bessarabia on 13 March 1920, the Old Kingdom on 17 July 1921, Transylvania and Bukovina on 30 July 1921.
• 1923 Constitution (29 March 1923). The 1923 Constitution defined Romania as a unitary national state and gave the vote to adult men; for women it left political rights to special laws.
• Women's vote (1929, 1938–1939, 1946). Women gained the vote in three steps: in 1929, in local elections, with restrictions; in 1938–1939, in parliamentary elections, only literate women aged 30 and over; under the electoral law of July 1946, all women from age 21.

On the map: Romania: Oltenia, Muntenia, Moldavia west of the Prut, southern Bukovina, northern Bukovina, the Herța region, the Hotin region (north, now in Ukraine), the Hotin region (south, now in Moldova), Bessarabia (centre and north), southern Bessarabia (Cahul), southern Bessarabia (Izmail, Bolhrad), eastern Budjak (Cetatea Albă), south-eastern Bessarabia (now in Moldova), northern Dobruja, the Cadrilater (southern Dobruja), Transylvania (south), Transylvania (north), Crișana (south), Crișana and Maramureș (north), the Banat plain, the Banat highlands.

• Assassination of I. G. Duca (December 1933). Legionnaires killed Prime Minister Ion G. Duca in 1933 and Prime Minister Armand Călinescu in September 1939.
• 1937 election (December 1937). In the December 1937 election the Legionary movement won 15.58% and 66 seats, third after the government bloc and the National Peasant Party.
• Royal dictatorship (February–March 1938). In February 1938 King Carol II dismissed the Goga government, declared the 1923 Constitution invalid and promulgated a new constitution that gave him power; on 30 March 1938 he dissolved the parties.
• The ten ținuturi (August 1938). The administrative law of August 1938 grouped the 71 counties into ten regions, called ținuturi, run by royal residents.

On the map: Romania: Oltenia, Muntenia, Moldavia west of the Prut, southern Bukovina, northern Dobruja, the Cadrilater (southern Dobruja), Transylvania (south), Transylvania (north), Crișana (south), Crișana and Maramureș (north), the Banat plain, the Banat highlands; The Soviet Union: northern Bukovina, the Herța region, the Hotin region (north, now in Ukraine), the Hotin region (south, now in Moldova), Bessarabia (centre and north), southern Bessarabia (Cahul), southern Bessarabia (Izmail, Bolhrad), eastern Budjak (Cetatea Albă), south-eastern Bessarabia (now in Moldova).

• Soviet ultimatum (26–28 June 1940). On 26 June 1940 Molotov demanded Bessarabia and northern Bukovina; on 28 June the Romanian government accepted, and Romania lost 50,762 km² and 3,776,309 inhabitants.
• Red Army reaches the Prut (28 June – 3 July 1940). Soviet troops crossed the Dniester on the night of 27/28 June, were in Cernăuți, Hotin, Bălți, Chișinău and Cetatea Albă on 28 June, and reached the Prut on 30 June 1940.
• Herța (June–July 1940). The Soviet note did not name the Herța district. The attached map included it, the Romanian envoy refused to accept the map, and the Soviet Union occupied the district.
• Galați, 30 June 1940 (30 June 1940). In Galați, retreating Romanian soldiers fired on a crowd of evacuees and killed roughly 300 people, most of them Jews, according to the Wiesel Commission.
• Dorohoi pogrom (1 July 1940). On 1 July 1940 in Dorohoi, Romanian soldiers killed Jews, starting with ten Jewish soldiers at a funeral; the official count was 53 dead, and the town's Jewish community counted between 165 and 200.
• Moldavian SSR (2 August 1940). On 2 August 1940 Moscow created the Moldavian SSR, a Soviet republic, from most of Bessarabia and a strip east of the Dniester; northern Bukovina, Herța, Hotin and southern Bessarabia went to the Ukrainian SSR.

On the map: Romania: Oltenia, Muntenia, Moldavia west of the Prut, southern Bukovina, northern Dobruja, the Cadrilater (southern Dobruja), Transylvania (south), Crișana (south), the Banat plain, the Banat highlands; The Soviet Union: northern Bukovina, the Herța region, the Hotin region (north, now in Ukraine), the Hotin region (south, now in Moldova), Bessarabia (centre and north), southern Bessarabia (Cahul), southern Bessarabia (Izmail, Bolhrad), eastern Budjak (Cetatea Albă), south-eastern Bessarabia (now in Moldova); Hungary: Transylvania (north), Crișana and Maramureș (north).

• Second Vienna Award (30 August 1940). Under the German–Italian award at Vienna, Hungary received Northern Transylvania: 43,591 km² with about 2.5 million inhabitants, according to the historian Randolph Braham.
• Treznea, 9 September 1940 (9 September 1940). At Treznea, Hungarian troops killed 93 people, 87 Romanians and 6 Jews, a figure given both by Romanian sources and by the Hungarian historian Balázs Ablonczy.
• Ip, 14 September 1940 (13–14 September 1940). At Ip, on the night of 13 to 14 September 1940, Hungarian soldiers killed between 152 and 158 Romanians. The Hungarian account links the killings to a machine-gun attack on the troops.

On the map: Romania: Oltenia, Muntenia, Moldavia west of the Prut, southern Bukovina, northern Dobruja, Transylvania (south), Crișana (south), the Banat plain, the Banat highlands; The Soviet Union: northern Bukovina, the Herța region, the Hotin region (north, now in Ukraine), the Hotin region (south, now in Moldova), Bessarabia (centre and north), southern Bessarabia (Cahul), southern Bessarabia (Izmail, Bolhrad), eastern Budjak (Cetatea Albă), south-eastern Bessarabia (now in Moldova); Bulgaria: the Cadrilater (southern Dobruja); Hungary: Transylvania (north), Crișana and Maramureș (north).

• Treaty of Craiova (7 September 1940). By the Treaty of Craiova, Romania ceded the Cadrilater (Durostor and Caliacra counties) to Bulgaria; the 1930 census had counted 378,344 people there.
• Population exchange (autumn 1940). After the Treaty of Craiova, 103,711 Romanians were moved from the Cadrilater to Romania and 62,278 Bulgarians from Northern Dobruja to Bulgaria, according to the historian Dennis Deletant.

On the map: Romania: Oltenia, Muntenia, Moldavia west of the Prut, southern Bukovina, northern Dobruja, Transylvania (south), Crișana (south), the Banat plain, the Banat highlands; The Soviet Union: northern Bukovina, the Herța region, the Hotin region (north, now in Ukraine), the Hotin region (south, now in Moldova), Bessarabia (centre and north), southern Bessarabia (Cahul), southern Bessarabia (Izmail, Bolhrad), eastern Budjak (Cetatea Albă), south-eastern Bessarabia (now in Moldova); Bulgaria: the Cadrilater (southern Dobruja); Hungary: Transylvania (north), Crișana and Maramureș (north).

• National Legionary State (6 September 1940 – January 1941). Carol II abdicated on 6 September 1940; Ion Antonescu governed with the Iron Guard, which had 15 ministers in the government of 14 September.
• Jilava massacre (26–27 November 1940). On the night of 26 to 27 November 1940, legionnaires killed 64 politicians and defenders of the interwar order in Jilava prison, among them a former prime minister. Hours later legionnaires killed Nicolae Iorga and Virgil Madgearu.
• Bucharest pogrom (21–23 January 1941). During the Legionary rebellion of 21–23 January 1941, 121 or 125 Jews were killed in Bucharest (the Wiesel Commission's report gives both numbers).

On the map: Romania: Oltenia, Muntenia, Moldavia west of the Prut, southern Bukovina, northern Bukovina, the Herța region, the Hotin region (north, now in Ukraine), the Hotin region (south, now in Moldova), Bessarabia (centre and north), southern Bessarabia (Cahul), southern Bessarabia (Izmail, Bolhrad), eastern Budjak (Cetatea Albă), south-eastern Bessarabia (now in Moldova), northern Dobruja, Transylvania (south), Crișana (south), the Banat plain, the Banat highlands; Bulgaria: the Cadrilater (southern Dobruja); Hungary: Transylvania (north), Crișana and Maramureș (north).

• The July 1941 advance (22 June – end of July 1941). Romania went to war alongside Germany on 22 June 1941; Cernăuți was taken on 5 July, Chișinău on 16 July, and all of Bessarabia by the end of July.
• Iași pogrom (28/29 June – 6 July 1941). The pogrom was carried out on Ion Antonescu's express orders, the Wiesel Commission writes. Between 13,266 Jews (the number admitted by the SSI, Romania's intelligence service) and 14,850 (the Jewish community's own count) died in the Iași pogrom and the death trains.
• Death trains (30 June – 6 July 1941). Of the train to Călărași, with up to 5,000 Jews, 1,011 arrived alive after seven days; of the train to Podu Iloaiei, with up to 2,700, 700 got off alive.

On the map: Romania: Oltenia, Muntenia, Moldavia west of the Prut, southern Bukovina, northern Bukovina, the Herța region, the Hotin region (north, now in Ukraine), the Hotin region (south, now in Moldova), Bessarabia (centre and north), southern Bessarabia (Cahul), southern Bessarabia (Izmail, Bolhrad), eastern Budjak (Cetatea Albă), south-eastern Bessarabia (now in Moldova), northern Dobruja, Transylvania (south), Crișana (south), the Banat plain, the Banat highlands; Bulgaria: the Cadrilater (southern Dobruja); Hungary: Transylvania (north), Crișana and Maramureș (north).

• Bessarabia and Bukovina, 1941 (July–August 1941). In Bessarabia and Bukovina, Romanian and German troops killed between 45,000 and 60,000 Jews in 1941, according to the Wiesel Commission.
• Deportations across the Dniester (September 1941 – 1942). According to the governors' reports, 147,712 Jews were deported to Transnistria in 1941: 91,845 from Bukovina (including Hotin and Dorohoi) and 55,867 from Bessarabia. With the 1942 deportations, between 154,449 and 170,737 people. Between 105,000 and 120,000 Jews deported from Romania died there.
• Governorate of Transnistria (August 1941 – March 1944). Between the Dniester and the Bug, Romania administered, without annexing it, the Governorate of Transnistria, with its capital at Tiraspol, then at Odesa. Between 115,000 and 180,000 local Jews were killed there. In all, the Wiesel Commission estimates that 280,000 to 380,000 Romanian and Ukrainian Jews were murdered or died in Romania and the territories it controlled.
• Odesa massacre (22–24 October 1941). After the explosion of 22 October 1941 that killed Romanian commanders, the Romanian army killed Jews in Odesa; some 22,000 were locked in the warehouses at Dalnic and killed.
• Bogdanovka and Domanovka (21 December 1941 – 18 March 1942). In Golta county, run by the Romanian prefect Modest Isopescu, a gendarmerie lieutenant colonel, Antonescu permitted the massacre at Bogdanovka: Ukrainian police brought from the county, assisted by Romanian gendarmes, shot about 48,000 Jews there between 21 December 1941 and 8 January 1942. At Domanovka, Ukrainian police and Romanian gendarmes killed 18,000 Jews between 10 January and 18 March 1942.

On the map: Romania: Oltenia, Muntenia, Moldavia west of the Prut, southern Bukovina, northern Bukovina, the Herța region, the Hotin region (north, now in Ukraine), the Hotin region (south, now in Moldova), Bessarabia (centre and north), southern Bessarabia (Cahul), southern Bessarabia (Izmail, Bolhrad), eastern Budjak (Cetatea Albă), south-eastern Bessarabia (now in Moldova), northern Dobruja, Transylvania (south), Crișana (south), the Banat plain, the Banat highlands; Bulgaria: the Cadrilater (southern Dobruja); Hungary: Transylvania (north), Crișana and Maramureș (north).

• Deportation of the Roma (1 June 1942 – 1944). From June 1942 the Antonescu regime deported slightly over 25,000 Roma to Transnistria, of whom approximately 11,000 died. About 14,000 survived; most returned in the spring of 1944.
• Stalingrad (19–20 November 1942). The Soviet counter-offensive at Stalingrad struck the Romanian Third Army first, on 19 November 1942, and the Romanian Fourth Army the next day.

On the map: Romania: Oltenia, Muntenia, Moldavia west of the Prut, southern Bukovina, Bessarabia (centre and north), southern Bessarabia (Cahul), southern Bessarabia (Izmail, Bolhrad), eastern Budjak (Cetatea Albă), south-eastern Bessarabia (now in Moldova), northern Dobruja, Transylvania (south), Crișana (south), the Banat plain, the Banat highlands; The Soviet Union: northern Bukovina, the Herța region, the Hotin region (north, now in Ukraine), the Hotin region (south, now in Moldova); Bulgaria: the Cadrilater (southern Dobruja); Hungary: Transylvania (north), Crișana and Maramureș (north).

• Deportations to Auschwitz (3 May – 27 June 1944). After Germany occupied Hungary on 19 March 1944, the Hungarian gendarmerie and administration, working with the Nazi commando led by Adolf Eichmann, forced the Jews of Northern Transylvania into ghettos from 3 May 1944; from 16 May to 27 June 131,639 people were deported to Auschwitz in 45 trains.

On the map: Romania: Oltenia, Muntenia, Moldavia west of the Prut, southern Bukovina, northern Dobruja, Transylvania (south), Transylvania (north), Crișana (south), Crișana and Maramureș (north), the Banat plain, the Banat highlands; The Soviet Union: northern Bukovina, the Herța region, the Hotin region (north, now in Ukraine), the Hotin region (south, now in Moldova), Bessarabia (centre and north), southern Bessarabia (Cahul), southern Bessarabia (Izmail, Bolhrad), eastern Budjak (Cetatea Albă), south-eastern Bessarabia (now in Moldova); Bulgaria: the Cadrilater (southern Dobruja).

• Front of March–April 1944 (17 March – 6 April 1944). In March–April 1944 the Red Army took northern Bessarabia and Bukovina: Soroca on 17 March, Bălți on 26 March, Cernăuți on 29 March, Hotin on 3 April, Orhei on 6 April.
• Iași–Chișinău offensive (20–29 August 1944). The Soviet offensive launched on 20 August 1944 took Iași on 21 August and Chișinău on 24 August, and all of southern Bessarabia by 26 August.
• 23 August 1944 (23 August 1944). On 23 August 1944 King Michael had Marshal Antonescu arrested at the Royal Palace, and Romania left its alliance with Germany.
• Moscow armistice (12 September 1944). The armistice signed in Moscow on 12 September 1944 declared the Vienna Award null and provided for Transylvania, or the greater part of it, to return to Romania, subject to the peace treaty.
• Northern Transylvania, 1944 (September – 25 October 1944). Soviet and Romanian troops took Cluj on 11 October, Oradea on 12 October and Satu Mare and Carei on 25 October 1944.

On the map: Romania: Oltenia, Muntenia, Moldavia west of the Prut, southern Bukovina, northern Dobruja, Transylvania (south), Transylvania (north), Crișana (south), Crișana and Maramureș (north), the Banat plain, the Banat highlands; The Soviet Union: northern Bukovina, the Herța region, the Hotin region (north, now in Ukraine), the Hotin region (south, now in Moldova), Bessarabia (centre and north), southern Bessarabia (Cahul), southern Bessarabia (Izmail, Bolhrad), eastern Budjak (Cetatea Albă), south-eastern Bessarabia (now in Moldova); Bulgaria: the Cadrilater (southern Dobruja).

• Germans deported to the USSR (10–20 January 1945). In January 1945 about 75,000 ethnic Germans from Romania were deported for labour in the USSR. About 12% of the Saxons died, about 15% of the Banat Swabians and nearly 20% of the Satu Mare Swabians; for the Saxons, Hannelore Baier gives 10% dead in the USSR and another 2% during repatriation.
• Groza government (6 March 1945). On 6 March 1945, under Soviet pressure, the Petru Groza government was formed, dominated by the Communists.
• Romanian administration returns (9–13 March 1945). The Soviet command expelled the Romanian administration from Northern Transylvania in November 1944. On 9 March 1945, after four months of Soviet military administration, Stalin let it return; the ceremony in Cluj was held on 13 March.

On the map: Romania: Oltenia, Muntenia, Moldavia west of the Prut, southern Bukovina, northern Dobruja, Transylvania (south), Transylvania (north), Crișana (south), Crișana and Maramureș (north), the Banat plain, the Banat highlands; The Soviet Union: northern Bukovina, the Herța region, the Hotin region (north, now in Ukraine), the Hotin region (south, now in Moldova), Bessarabia (centre and north), southern Bessarabia (Cahul), southern Bessarabia (Izmail, Bolhrad), eastern Budjak (Cetatea Albă), south-eastern Bessarabia (now in Moldova); Bulgaria: the Cadrilater (southern Dobruja).

• 1946 elections (19 November 1946). The elections of 19 November 1946 were won by the Communist-led bloc by falsifying the results, according to the historian Florian Banu.
• Paris Peace Treaty (10 February 1947). The peace treaty signed in Paris on 10 February 1947 annulled the Vienna Award and kept the Soviet–Romanian border of 28 June 1940; it came into force on 15 September 1947.
• King Michael's abdication (30 December 1947). On 30 December 1947 King Michael I was forced to abdicate, and the Romanian People's Republic was proclaimed the same day.
• Women's vote (1929, 1938–1939, 1946). Women gained the vote in three steps: in 1929, in local elections, with restrictions; in 1938–1939, in parliamentary elections, only literate women aged 30 and over; under the electoral law of July 1946, all women from age 21.

On the map: Romania: Oltenia, Muntenia, Moldavia west of the Prut, southern Bukovina, northern Dobruja, Transylvania (south), Transylvania (north), Crișana (south), Crișana and Maramureș (north), the Banat plain, the Banat highlands; The Soviet Union: northern Bukovina, the Herța region, the Hotin region (north, now in Ukraine), the Hotin region (south, now in Moldova), Bessarabia (centre and north), southern Bessarabia (Cahul), southern Bessarabia (Izmail, Bolhrad), eastern Budjak (Cetatea Albă), south-eastern Bessarabia (now in Moldova); Bulgaria: the Cadrilater (southern Dobruja).

• Snake Island (4 February 1948). A protocol of 4 February 1948 handed the island to the USSR; today it belongs to Ukraine.
• Nationalisation (11 June 1948). The law of 11 June 1948 nationalised industrial enterprises, banks, insurance companies, mines and transport companies, taking them into state ownership.
• Snake Island goes to the USSR (4 February 1948 (protocol); 23 May 1948 (handover)). The Romanian–Soviet Protocol signed in Moscow on 4 February 1948 stated that Snake Island "is incorporated into the [USSR]". The island was handed over on 23 May 1948.

On the map: Romania: Oltenia, Muntenia, Moldavia west of the Prut, southern Bukovina, northern Dobruja, Transylvania (south), Transylvania (north), Crișana (south), Crișana and Maramureș (north), the Banat plain, the Banat highlands; The Soviet Union: northern Bukovina, the Herța region, the Hotin region (north, now in Ukraine), the Hotin region (south, now in Moldova), Bessarabia (centre and north), southern Bessarabia (Cahul), southern Bessarabia (Izmail, Bolhrad), eastern Budjak (Cetatea Albă), south-eastern Bessarabia (now in Moldova); Bulgaria: the Cadrilater (southern Dobruja).

• Canal labour camps, 1949–1953 (summer 1949 – 18 July 1953). By minimal estimates, 40,000–60,000 prisoners were on the Danube–Black Sea Canal sites at any one time. Work was halted on 18 July 1953.
• Pitești prison (December 1949 – September 1951). At Pitești, student prisoners were tortured into torturing their fellow inmates, in what the regime called "re-education". Across the whole "re-education", from Suceava and Pitești to Gherla, the Tismăneanu Commission's report counts dozens killed and several hundred maimed.
• Sighet prison (5–6 May 1950 and the following years). On the night of 5–6 May 1950, 90 former dignitaries were brought to Sighet. Between 1950 and 1955 about 180 prisoners passed through Sighet; 53 of them died there.
• Gherla prison (1950–1952). The "re-education" begun at Pitești was extended to Gherla in 1950. Gherla was a large prison for inmates with long sentences, mostly peasants, workers and young people.
• Aiud prison (1948–1964 (and political prisoners in the 1980s)). Aiud was one of the main prisons for political prisoners with heavy sentences, including hard labour for life. It still held political prisoners in the 1980s.
• Periprava and Salcia camps (1950s – early 1960s). The Tismăneanu Commission's report names Periprava and Salcia on the Danube, together with the Canal sites, as the harshest labour camps, with high mortality.

On the map: Romania: Oltenia, Muntenia, Moldavia west of the Prut, southern Bukovina, northern Dobruja, Transylvania (south), Transylvania (north), Crișana (south), Crișana and Maramureș (north), the Banat plain, the Banat highlands; The Soviet Union: northern Bukovina, the Herța region, the Hotin region (north, now in Ukraine), the Hotin region (south, now in Moldova), Bessarabia (centre and north), southern Bessarabia (Cahul), southern Bessarabia (Izmail, Bolhrad), eastern Budjak (Cetatea Albă), south-eastern Bessarabia (now in Moldova); Bulgaria: the Cadrilater (southern Dobruja).

• Counties abolished (1950) (September 1950 – February 1968). Law No. 5/1950 replaced the 58 counties with 28 regions, divided into districts called raions, on the Soviet model. The system lasted until February 1968.
• Hungarian Autonomous Region (27 September 1952 – February 1968). The Constitution of 27 September 1952 created the Hungarian Autonomous Region, centred on Târgu Mureș. In 1956 it had 13,500 km² and 731,387 inhabitants, 77.3% of them Hungarian.

On the map: Romania: Oltenia, Muntenia, Moldavia west of the Prut, southern Bukovina, northern Dobruja, Transylvania (south), Transylvania (north), Crișana (south), Crișana and Maramureș (north), the Banat plain, the Banat highlands; The Soviet Union: northern Bukovina, the Herța region, the Hotin region (north, now in Ukraine), the Hotin region (south, now in Moldova), Bessarabia (centre and north), southern Bessarabia (Cahul), southern Bessarabia (Izmail, Bolhrad), eastern Budjak (Cetatea Albă), south-eastern Bessarabia (now in Moldova); Bulgaria: the Cadrilater (southern Dobruja).

• Deportation to the Bărăgan (18 June 1951 – 1956). On the Pentecost night of 1951, between 40,320 and about 44,000 people, depending on the source, were deported to the Bărăgan from the 25 km strip along the Yugoslav border (Banat and south-western Oltenia). Eighteen new villages were founded.

On the map: Romania: Oltenia, Muntenia, Moldavia west of the Prut, southern Bukovina, northern Dobruja, Transylvania (south), Transylvania (north), Crișana (south), Crișana and Maramureș (north), the Banat plain, the Banat highlands; The Soviet Union: northern Bukovina, the Herța region, the Hotin region (north, now in Ukraine), the Hotin region (south, now in Moldova), Bessarabia (centre and north), southern Bessarabia (Cahul), southern Bessarabia (Izmail, Bolhrad), eastern Budjak (Cetatea Albă), south-eastern Bessarabia (now in Moldova); Bulgaria: the Cadrilater (southern Dobruja).

• Collectivisation 1949–1962 (March 1949 – 27 April 1962). Collectivisation merged peasants' land into collective farms. It began in 1949, slowed after 1952, was resumed in force in 1957 and was declared complete on 27 April 1962.

On the map: Romania: Oltenia, Muntenia, Moldavia west of the Prut, southern Bukovina, northern Dobruja, Transylvania (south), Transylvania (north), Crișana (south), Crișana and Maramureș (north), the Banat plain, the Banat highlands; The Soviet Union: northern Bukovina, the Herța region, the Hotin region (north, now in Ukraine), the Hotin region (south, now in Moldova), Bessarabia (centre and north), southern Bessarabia (Cahul), southern Bessarabia (Izmail, Bolhrad), eastern Budjak (Cetatea Albă), south-eastern Bessarabia (now in Moldova); Bulgaria: the Cadrilater (southern Dobruja).

• Soviet troops leave (June–July 1958). About 25,000 Soviet soldiers left Romania in June–July 1958. The withdrawal had been approved by the Warsaw Treaty states on 24 May 1958.
• Ceaușescu takes over the party (March 1965). A few days after Gheorghe Gheorghiu-Dej died on 19 March 1965, Nicolae Ceaușescu took over the party leadership. In August 1965 a new constitution renamed the state the Socialist Republic of Romania.
• The balcony speech, 1968 (21 August 1968). On 21 August 1968, before some 100,000 people, Ceaușescu condemned the Warsaw Pact invasion of Czechoslovakia, in which Romania took no part. The Tismăneanu Commission's report calls the gesture a "mascaradă" (masquerade) that nonetheless won him popular enthusiasm at home.
• Counties return (1968) (16 February 1968). Law No. 2 of 16 February 1968 divided the country into 39 counties and the Municipality of Bucharest. Today there are 41 counties and the Municipality of Bucharest.

On the map: Romania: Oltenia, Muntenia, Moldavia west of the Prut, southern Bukovina, northern Dobruja, Transylvania (south), Transylvania (north), Crișana (south), Crișana and Maramureș (north), the Banat plain, the Banat highlands; The Soviet Union: northern Bukovina, the Herța region, the Hotin region (north, now in Ukraine), the Hotin region (south, now in Moldova), Bessarabia (centre and north), southern Bessarabia (Cahul), southern Bessarabia (Izmail, Bolhrad), eastern Budjak (Cetatea Albă), south-eastern Bessarabia (now in Moldova); Bulgaria: the Cadrilater (southern Dobruja).

• Decree 770 (1966) (1 October 1966 – December 1989). Decree 770 of 1 October 1966 banned abortion, with few exceptions. Between 1966 and 1989, 9,452 women were recorded in maternal-mortality statistics, an undercount according to the Tismăneanu Commission.
• The 1977 earthquake (4 March 1977, 21:21). The Vrancea earthquake of 4 March 1977 had a magnitude of 7.4 and struck at a depth of 94 km. According to the final official reports, it killed 1,578 people, 1,424 of them in Bucharest.

On the map: Romania: Oltenia, Muntenia, Moldavia west of the Prut, southern Bukovina, northern Dobruja, Transylvania (south), Transylvania (north), Crișana (south), Crișana and Maramureș (north), the Banat plain, the Banat highlands; The Soviet Union: northern Bukovina, the Herța region, the Hotin region (north, now in Ukraine), the Hotin region (south, now in Moldova), Bessarabia (centre and north), southern Bessarabia (Cahul), southern Bessarabia (Izmail, Bolhrad), eastern Budjak (Cetatea Albă), south-eastern Bessarabia (now in Moldova); Bulgaria: the Cadrilater (southern Dobruja).

• Iron Gates I dam (16 May 1972). The Iron Gates I hydropower and navigation system, built jointly with Yugoslavia, was inaugurated on 16 May 1972.
• Canal opened (1984) (26 May 1984). The Danube–Black Sea Canal, 64.4 km long between Cernavodă and Agigea, was opened on 26 May 1984. The northern branch, Poarta Albă–Midia Năvodari, was finished later.
• House of the People (1984–1989). Mass demolition for the House of the Republic, today the Palace of Parliament, and the new civic centre began in 1984. Districts making up a quarter of Bucharest's historic centre were demolished, and tens of thousands of residents were moved.
• Village systematisation (law of 29 October 1974; plan 1986–1988). In 1986 a Central Committee report proposed removing 3,931 of the 13,123 villages, and in 1988 Ceaușescu spoke of 7,000–8,000. By December 1989 few villages had been razed, among them Buda and Dimieni near Bucharest.

On the map: Romania: Oltenia, Muntenia, Moldavia west of the Prut, southern Bukovina, northern Dobruja, Transylvania (south), Transylvania (north), Crișana (south), Crișana and Maramureș (north), the Banat plain, the Banat highlands; The Soviet Union: northern Bukovina, the Herța region, the Hotin region (north, now in Ukraine), the Hotin region (south, now in Moldova), Bessarabia (centre and north), southern Bessarabia (Cahul), southern Bessarabia (Izmail, Bolhrad), eastern Budjak (Cetatea Albă), south-eastern Bessarabia (now in Moldova); Bulgaria: the Cadrilater (southern Dobruja).

• Motru miners' strike (19 October 1981). A decree of 9 October 1981 made food "speculation" punishable by prison, and one of 17 October led to the rationing of bread, flour and maize meal. On 19 October 1981 the Motru miners protested against the bread rations.
• Brașov revolt (15 November 1987). On 15 November 1987, workers from the Steagul Roșu truck works marched to the County Party Committee, where some 8,000 people, by participants' estimates, chanted against Ceaușescu. Afterwards 62 workers were forcibly moved to other towns.

On the map: Romania: Oltenia, Muntenia, Moldavia west of the Prut, southern Bukovina, northern Dobruja, Transylvania (south), Transylvania (north), Crișana (south), Crișana and Maramureș (north), the Banat plain, the Banat highlands; The Soviet Union: northern Bukovina, the Herța region, the Hotin region (north, now in Ukraine), the Hotin region (south, now in Moldova), Bessarabia (centre and north), southern Bessarabia (Cahul), southern Bessarabia (Izmail, Bolhrad), eastern Budjak (Cetatea Albă), south-eastern Bessarabia (now in Moldova); Bulgaria: the Cadrilater (southern Dobruja).

• Timișoara (15–20 December 1989). The protest that began on 15–16 December outside Pastor László Tőkés's parish house became a revolt, and by 20 December the protesters held the city. Prosecutors say 66 people were shot dead on the evening and night of 17/18 December.
• Bucharest (21–22 December 1989). The rally Ceaușescu called on 21 December turned into a protest. On the night of 21/22 December, the demonstrators at the University Square barricade were put down with gunfire.
• Cluj (21 December 1989). In Cluj on 21 December, soldiers fired on demonstrators. The prosecutors record 11 dead at the Napoca–Universității crossroads and 9 around Calea Moților.
• Sibiu (21–22 December 1989). On 21 December, soldiers of unit UM 01512 fired in Piața Mare: five people were shot, one fatally. On 22 December, in the fighting near the unit, the prosecutors count 19 Interior Ministry dead, plus other soldiers and civilians.
• Cugir (21 December 1989). In Cugir on 21 December, workers came out into the streets and attacked the headquarters of the militia, the police of the time. The militiamen barricaded inside fired warning shots; the crowd set the building on fire and killed two militiamen. According to the local press, ten people died in Cugir between 21 December and 10 January.
• Ceaușescu's flight, 22 December (22 December 1989). On 22 December 1989 the crowd took the Central Committee building. Nicolae and Elena Ceaușescu fled by helicopter from its roof and were caught the same day near Târgoviște.
• Târgoviște (22–25 December 1989). Nicolae and Elena Ceaușescu were tried on 25 December 1989 in the Târgoviște barracks and executed the same day. The Tismăneanu Commission and the military prosecutors call the trial a sham.

On the map: Romania: Oltenia, Muntenia, Moldavia west of the Prut, southern Bukovina, northern Dobruja, Transylvania (south), Transylvania (north), Crișana (south), Crișana and Maramureș (north), the Banat plain, the Banat highlands; The Soviet Union: northern Bukovina, the Herța region, the Hotin region (north, now in Ukraine), the Hotin region (south, now in Moldova), Bessarabia (centre and north), southern Bessarabia (Cahul), southern Bessarabia (Izmail, Bolhrad), eastern Budjak (Cetatea Albă), south-eastern Bessarabia (now in Moldova); Bulgaria: the Cadrilater (southern Dobruja).

• How many died in 1989 (16–30 December 1989). The Tismăneanu Commission gives 1,104 dead: 162 up to 22 December and 942 between 22 and 27 December. The military prosecutors' 2022 indictment counts 153 dead from 16 December to noon on 22 December, and 857 from 4 pm that day to 30 December.
• Otopeni (23 December 1989). On the morning of 23 December at Otopeni airport, the Army troops defending the airport fired on a Securitate-troops detachment sent to help, taking it for the enemy, and on a bus carrying civilians. According to the prosecutors, 48 people died: 40 soldiers and 8 civilians.

On the map: Romania: Oltenia, Muntenia, Moldavia west of the Prut, southern Bukovina, northern Dobruja, Transylvania (south), Transylvania (north), Crișana (south), Crișana and Maramureș (north), the Banat plain, the Banat highlands; Ukraine: northern Bukovina, the Herța region, the Hotin region (north, now in Ukraine), southern Bessarabia (Izmail, Bolhrad), eastern Budjak (Cetatea Albă); The Republic of Moldova: the Hotin region (south, now in Moldova), Bessarabia (centre and north), southern Bessarabia (Cahul), south-eastern Bessarabia (now in Moldova); Bulgaria: the Cadrilater (southern Dobruja).

• Târgu Mureș, March 1990 (19–20 March 1990). In the clashes between Romanians and Hungarians in Târgu Mureș on 19–20 March 1990, five people died and more than 300 were injured, according to Helsinki Watch.
• The Mineriad, June 1990 (13–15 June 1990). After 52 days of protest in University Square, security forces and thousands of miners brought to Bucharest attacked the demonstrators. The prosecutors record four people shot dead and 1,388 people harmed.
• The 1991 constitution (21 November – 8 December 1991). Romania's Constitution was adopted by the Constituent Assembly on 21 November 1991 and entered into force after the referendum of 8 December 1991.

On the map: Romania: Oltenia, Muntenia, Moldavia west of the Prut, southern Bukovina, northern Dobruja, Transylvania (south), Transylvania (north), Crișana (south), Crișana and Maramureș (north), the Banat plain, the Banat highlands; Ukraine: northern Bukovina, the Herța region, the Hotin region (north, now in Ukraine), southern Bessarabia (Izmail, Bolhrad), eastern Budjak (Cetatea Albă); The Republic of Moldova: the Hotin region (south, now in Moldova), Bessarabia (centre and north), southern Bessarabia (Cahul), south-eastern Bessarabia (now in Moldova); Bulgaria: the Cadrilater (southern Dobruja).

• Language laws, Chișinău 1989 (31 August 1989). On 31 August 1989 the Supreme Soviet, the parliament of the Moldavian SSR, made Romanian, then called "Moldovan", the state language. It also returned the language to the Latin alphabet.
• Northern Bukovina to Ukraine (24 August 1991). On 24 August 1991 the Verkhovna Rada proclaimed Ukraine's independence. Northern Bukovina, the Herța region, the northern part of former Hotin county and the Budjak (southern Bessarabia, towards the Black Sea) stayed in the independent Ukrainian state.
• Moldova's independence (27 August 1991). On 27 August 1991 the Parliament of the Republic of Moldova adopted the Declaration of Independence, separating the republic from the Soviet Union.
• War on the Dniester, 1992 (2 September 1990; March – 21 July 1992). The Transnistrian region proclaimed itself a separate republic on 2 September 1990. After the fighting of 1992, including at Tighina (Bender), Mircea Snegur and Boris Yeltsin signed a ceasefire agreement in Moscow on 21 July 1992.

On the map: Romania: Oltenia, Muntenia, Moldavia west of the Prut, southern Bukovina, northern Dobruja, Transylvania (south), Transylvania (north), Crișana (south), Crișana and Maramureș (north), the Banat plain, the Banat highlands; Ukraine: northern Bukovina, the Herța region, the Hotin region (north, now in Ukraine), southern Bessarabia (Izmail, Bolhrad), eastern Budjak (Cetatea Albă); The Republic of Moldova: the Hotin region (south, now in Moldova), Bessarabia (centre and north), southern Bessarabia (Cahul), south-eastern Bessarabia (now in Moldova); Bulgaria: the Cadrilater (southern Dobruja).

• Romania joins NATO (29 March 2004). On 29 March 2004 Romania became a NATO member, together with Bulgaria, Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania, Slovakia and Slovenia.
• Romania joins the EU (1 January 2007). Romania became a member state of the European Union on 1 January 2007, under the accession treaty signed on 25 April 2005.
• Maritime boundary (ICJ 2009) (3 February 2009). The International Court of Justice unanimously drew the maritime boundary between Romania and Ukraine. Snake Island was left only its 12-nautical-mile territorial sea and otherwise did not affect the line.
• Romania in Schengen (31 March 2024 (air and sea); 1 January 2025 (land)). Checks at the borders between Romania and the other Schengen states were lifted at seaports and airports on 31 March 2024, and on land on 1 January 2025.
• The 2021 census (1 December 2021). At the 2021 census, Romania's resident population was 19,053,815, 1.1 million fewer than in 2011.
• Romanians abroad (2024). According to the UN (UN DESA), in 2024 about 4.58 million people born in Romania lived in other countries, most of them in Germany, Italy and the United Kingdom.